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CAS NO : 61788-47-4
EC / List NO : 262-978-7
Coconut fatty acid obtained from the coconut tree (Cocos nucifera), also finds extensive use in tropical and subtropicals regions of the world for food and industrial purposes.
The coconut fatty acid traditionally produced in West Africa is made by crushing and pressing copra to extract the oils.
This is done in large mills and the oil is freely available on the market.
Palm kernel oil (which is not the focus of this article) is also produced by first cracking the palm kernel nuts either manually or mechanically, to separate the shells from the kernels.
The kernels are then roasted and milled before the extraction of the oil.
Berget however notes that in Ghana and much of West Africa, palm kernel oil is not consumed locally as a food oil to any significant degree.
Local uses are limited to lamp oil and a local soap industry.
Coconut fatty acid (or coconut butter) is an edible oil derived from the wick, meat, and milk of the coconut palm fruit.
Coconut fatty acid is a white solid fat, melting at warmer room temperatures of around 25° C (78° F), in warmer climates during the summer months it is a clear thin liquid oil. Unrefined varieties have a distinct coconut aroma.
It is used as a food oil, and in industrial applications for cosmetics and detergent production.Due to its high levels of saturated fat, numerous health authorities recommend limiting its consumption as a food.
Coconut fatty acid is 99% fat, composed mainly of saturated fats (82% of total; table).
In a 100 gram reference amount, Coconut fatty acid supplies 890 Calories.
Half of the saturated fat content of Coconut fatty acid is lauric acid (41.8 grams per 100 grams of total composition), while other significant saturated fats are myristic acid (16.7 grams), palmitic acid (8.6 grams), and caprylic acid (6.8 grams).
Monounsaturated fats are 6% of total composition, and polyunsaturated fats are 2% (table).
Coconut fatty acid contains phytosterols, whereas there are no micronutrients in significant content (table).
Coconut fatty acid has a long history in Asia, particularly in tropical regions where the plant is abundant, where it has been used for cooking.
It is the oil of choice in Sri Lankan cuisine, where it is used for sautéing and frying, in both savoury and sweet dishes.
It also plays a prominent role in the cuisines of Thailand and Kerala.
As an oil relatively recently introduced to Western countries, Coconut fatty acid is commonly used in baked goods, pastries, and sautés, having a nut-like quality with some sweetness.
It is sometimes used by movie theatre chains to pop popcorn.
Coconut fatty acid adds considerable saturated fat and calories to the snackfood while enhancing flavor, possibly a factor increasing further consumption of high-calorie snackfoods, energy balance, and weight gain.
Other culinary uses include replacing solid fats produced through hydrogenation in baked and confectionery goods.
Hydrogenated or partially hydrogenated coconut oil is often used in non-dairy creamers and snack foods.
In frying, the smoke point of Coconut fatty acid is 177 °C (351 °F).
Coconut fatty acid has been tested for use as a feedstock for biodiesel to use as a diesel engine fuel.
In this manner, it can be applied to power generators and transport using diesel engines.
Since straight coconut oil has a high gelling temperature (22–25 °C), a high viscosity, and a minimum combustion chamber temperature of 500 °C (932 °F) (to avoid polymerization of the fuel), Coconut fatty acid typically is transesterified to make biodiesel.
Use of B100 (100% biodiesel) is possible only in temperate climates, as the gel point is approximately 10 °C (50 °F).
The oil must meet the Weihenstephan standard [better source needed] to use pure vegetable oil as a fuel.
Moderate to severe damage from carbonisation and clogging would occur in an unmodified engine.
The Philippines, Vanuatu, Samoa, and several other tropical island countries use Coconut fatty acid as an alternative fuel source to run automobiles, trucks, and buses, and to power generators.
Biodiesel fuel derived from coconut oil is currently used as a fuel for transport in the Philippines.
Further research into the potential of Coconut fatty acid as a fuel for electricity generation is being carried out in the islands of the Pacific, although to date it appears that it is not useful as a fuel source due to the cost of labour and supply constraints.
Coconut oil has been tested for use as an engine lubricant and as a transformer oil.
Coconut oil (and derivatives, such as coconut fatty acid) are used as raw materials in the manufacture of surfactants such as cocamidopropyl betaine, cocamide MEA, and cocamide DEA.
Acids derived from coconut fatty acid can be used as herbicides.
Before the advent of electrical lighting, coconut fatty acid was the primary oil used for illumination in India and was exported as cochin oil.
Coconut fatty acid is a Mixtures of fatty acids Coconut acid uses and applications include:
Lubricant; intermediate in alkyd resins, rubber compounding., detergents, water repellents, polishes, soaps, abrasives, cutting oils, candles, crayons, emulsifiers, personal care products;
source of long-chain alkyl groups; activator; surfactant, emulsifier, emollient in cosmetics;
in foods;
emulsifier in pharmaceutical topicals;
in food packaging adhesives;
defoamer in food-contact paper coatings, paper paperboard;
in food-contact textiles
Suggested storage of Coconut acid: Store in dry and well-ventilated areas ambient temps.
( 35 C) away from direct sunlight
9 common products containing coconut fatty acids include:
Soap
Laundry detergent
Cleansing agents
Emulsifiers in household and industrial cleaning products
Fragrance additives
Cosmetics
Pharmaceutical applications
Personal care applications
Food applications
Dry process
Dry processing requires that the meat be extracted from the shell and dried using fire, sunlight, or kilns to create copra.
The copra is pressed or dissolved with solvents, producing the coconut fatty acid and a high-protein, high-fiber mash.
The mash is of poor quality for human consumption and is instead fed to ruminants; there is no process to extract protein from the mash.
Wet process
The all-wet process uses coconut milk extracted from raw coconut rather than dried copra.
The proteins in the coconut milk create an emulsion of oil and water.
The more problematic step is breaking up the emulsion to recover the oil.
This used to be done by prolonged boiling, but this produces a discolored oil and is not economical.
Modern techniques use centrifuges and pre-treatments including cold, heat, acids, salts, enzymes, electrolysis, shock waves, steam distillation, or some combination thereof.
Despite numerous variations and technologies, wet processing is less viable than dry processing due to a 10–15% lower yield, even taking into account the losses due to spoilage and pests with dry processing.
Wet processes also require investment of equipment and energy, incurring high capital and operating costs.
Proper harvesting of the coconut (the age of a coconut can be 2 to 20 months when picked) makes a significant difference in the efficacy of the oil-making process.
Copra made from immature nuts is more difficult to work with and produces an inferior product with lower yields.
Conventional coconut fatty acid processors use hexane as a solvent to extract up to 10% more oil than produced with just rotary mills and expellers.
They then refine the oil to remove certain free fatty acids to reduce susceptibility to rancidification.
Other processes to increase shelf life include using copra with a moisture content below 6%, keeping the moisture content of the oil below 0.2%, heating the oil to 130–150 °C (266–302 °F) and adding salt or citric acid.
Virgin coconut oil (VCO) can be produced from fresh coconut milk, meat, or residue.
Producing it from the fresh meat involves either wet-milling or drying the residue, and using a screw press to extract the oil.
VCO can also be extracted from fresh meat by grating and drying it to a moisture content of 10–12%, then using a manual press to extract the oil. Producing it from coconut milk involves grating the coconut and mixing it with water, then squeezing out the oil.
The milk can also be fermented for 36–48 hours, the oil removed, and the cream heated to remove any remaining oil.
A third option involves using a centrifuge to separate the oil from the other liquids.
Coconut oil can also be extracted from the dry residue left over from the production of coconut milk.
A thousand mature coconuts weighing approximately 1,440 kilograms (3,170 lb)[clarification needed] yield around 170 kilograms (370 lb) of copra from which around 70 litres (15 imp gal) of coconut oil can be extracted.
Refined oil
Refined, bleached, and deodorized (RBD) oil is usually made from copra and dried coconut kernel, which is pressed in a heated hydraulic press to extract the oil.
This yields practically all the oil present, amounting to more than 60% of the dry weight of the coconut.
This crude coconut oil is not suitable for consumption because it contains contaminants and must be refined with further heating and filtering.
Another method for extraction of coconut oil involves the enzymatic action of alpha-amylase, polygalacturonases, and proteases on diluted coconut paste.
Unlike virgin coconut fatty acid, refined coconut oil has no coconut taste or aroma.
RBD oil is used for home cooking, commercial food processing, and cosmetic, industrial, and pharmaceutical purposes.
Hydrogenation
RBD coconut oil can be processed further into partially or fully hydrogenated oil to increase its melting point.
Since virgin and RBD coconut oils melt at 24 °C (76 °F), foods containing coconut oil tend to melt in warm climates.
A higher melting point is desirable in these warm climates, so the oil is hydrogenated.
The melting point of hydrogenated coconut oil is 36–40 °C (97–104 °F).
In the process of hydrogenation, unsaturated fats (monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids) are combined with hydrogen in a catalytic process to make them more saturated.
Coconut fatty acid contains only 6% monounsaturated and 2% polyunsaturated fatty acids.
In the partial hydrogenation process, some of these are transformed into trans fatty acids.
Fractionation
Fractionated coconut oil provides fractions of the whole oil so that its different fatty acids can be separated for specific uses.
Lauric acid, a 12-carbon chain fatty acid, is often removed because of its high value for industrial and medical purposes.
The fractionation of coconut oil can also be used to isolate caprylic acid and capric acid, which are medium-chain triglycerides, as these are used for medical applications, special diets and cosmetics, sometimes also being used as a carrier oil for fragrances.
Coconut fatty acid is high in saturated fat and may, therefore, raise serum cholesterol concentrations, but beneficial effects on other cardiovascular risk factors have also been suggested.
Therefore, we conducted a systematic review of the effect of coconut fatty acid consumption on blood lipids and other cardiovascular risk factors compared with other cooking oils using data from clinical trials.
Coconut fatty acid, derived from coconut trees, is very different from most other cooking oils and contains a unique composition of fatty acids.
Unlike other plant-based oils, coconut oil contains about 90% saturated fatty acids, of which the saturated fat lauric acid makes up around 40% of its total fat content.
In short, it means it is less saturated than butter and contains no trans-fat.
Due to the presence of lauric acid, the coconut fatty acid l has antimicrobial properties that can be used effectively for the treatment of various skin-related diseases and conditions since the acid helps kill the harmful bacteria that causes breakouts and inflammation on skin.
Coconut fatty acid diet hanolamine is a mixture of amides produced through the process of chemical composition by the condensation of coconut oil fatty acids with diethanolamine.
It is primarily produced by mixing of diethanolamides of the fatty acids that constitute coconut oil, which is composed of approximately 48.2% lauric acid, 18% myristic acid), 8.5% palmitic acid, 8% caprylic acid, 7% capric acid, 6% oleic acid, 2.3% stearic acid, and 2% linoleic acid.
With these versatility properties, coconut oil is widely used for various applications in industries including cosmetic and pharmaceutical sector.
Coconut fatty acid diethanolamide, acting as a wetting agent, foam accelerator, and stabilizer, can be widely used in personal care products, cosmetics, laundry, and household detergent formulations.
For cosmetic industry, the fatty acid is used for personal care formulations bath oil, shampoo, conditioner, lipstick, and hair dye while non-cosmetic applications include using it as a surfactant in soap bars, light-duty detergents, and dishwashing detergents.
Moreover, it is also used widely as an antistatic agent in plastics, e.g. in polyethylene film for food packaging and rigid poly(vinyl) chloride.
It has been employed in combination with metallic salts as an antistatic for polystyrene and in impact-resistant rubber polystyrene blends.
Is obtained by splitting and the subsequent vacuum distillation of coconut oil.
The product obtained has a melting point above 25 º C. It is solid at room temperature, opaque white and with a pungent smell.
Unlike other fatty acids, it is characterized by the presence of caprylic acid (up to 10%).
Rich in lauric acid.
Coconut Fatty acids are used among others aplications:
Amines, betaines, esters, fatty alcohols, detergents, cosmetics and personal care, soaps and liquid, textile finishing, leather finishing, finishing fibers, coatings, resins and surfactants.
Fatty acids are very useful chemistry due to their high-performance properties derived from renewable raw materials.
Univar Solutions offers a full range of fatty acids including coconut and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA).
Coconut fatty acids are vegetable derived, from coconut oil or palm oil.
Coconut oil is the highest natural source of lauric acid.
Our portfolio has versions which are whole, stripped, distilled, and hydrogenated, and some of our products can be certified kosher or halal.
Polyunsaturated fatty acids are derived from a variety of natural oils and fats and have more than one double bond in their carbon chain.
Coconut Fatty acids and palm kernel oil are import feedstocks in the oleochemical industry.
Oleochemicals are defined as chemicals made from oils.
Coconut oil is well positioned because it has the unique advantage of having its fatty acid composition falling within the carbon-chain spectrum desired for the production of oleochemicals.
C12–C14 fractions are highly sought after.
The caproic to capric (C6–C10) fatty acid fractions are good materials for plasticizer range alcohol and for polyol esters.
The latter are used in high-performance oil for jet engines and for a new generation of lubricants.
These fractions are also basic to the preparation of medium-chain triglycerides, a highly valued dietary fat.
The C12–C18 fractions are the primary raw materials for detergent-grade fatty alcohols.
Coconut fatty acids can be converted to other derivatives.
Principles and methods in the manufacture of various oleochemicals are discussed.
Detailed information is given for the following:
fatty acids and fat-splitting procedures;
methyl esters and their advantages;
fatty alcohols, which are gaining favor as surfactants because they are biodegradable and a renewable resource;
glycerine;
monoalkyl phosphates, which are used for fireproofing, foam inhibitors, in extreme pressure lubricants, and for cosmetic preparations;
and alkanolamides, used as nonionic surfactants.
Preparation of other surfactants prepared from vegetable oils is discussed.
These surfactants find broad use in all industries, for example, as the main ingredients in detergents, emulsifiers and sanitizers in the food industry, and as flotation agents in the mining industry.
Tertiary amines are used as starting materials for the manufacture of quaternary ammonium compounds and in the preparation of amine oxides.
These oxides are used in cosmetic preparation.
Coconut Fatty acids constitutes the major commercial product of coconut.
Coconut Fatty acids is used as a cooking fat, hair oil, body oil, and industrial oil.
Refined Coconut Fatty acids is prepared exclusively for industrial purposes and is widely used in the manufacture of biscuits, chocolates, icecreams, margarine, and confectionery items.
Coconut Fatty acids also used for the manufacture of paints and pharmaceutical agents.
Desirable properties such as a low melting point, resistance to rancidity, pleasant flavor, and easy digestibility make it an ideal ingredient in the food industry.
Coconut oil is a source of many oleo chemicals such as fatty acids, methyl esters, and fatty alcohol.
For cooking and toiletry purposes, it is commonly used in the form of filtered coconut oil.
Virgin Coconut Fatty acids, which is a high-quality oil, is prepared from the milk extracted from the raw kernel.
This type of coconut oil is most suitable as a massage oil for babies.
Coconut Fatty acids is a rich source of saturated fatty acids, and short- and medium-chain fatty acids account for 70% of these fatty acids .
It has a low content of unsaturated fatty acids with a negligible content of both n:6 and n:3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and a low n:6/n:3 ratio (< 4).
The highly resistant nature of coconut oil to oxidative rancidity is attributed to its high concentration of saturated fat and low unsaturated fatty acids.
This quality makes it suitable for storage without deterioration.
Copra, which is obtained by drying coconuts, is the source of coconut oil.
Power-driven rotaries and expellers are used for extracting oil from copra.
This oil extraction is immediately followed by the separation of cake residue and mucilage by filtering or by settling.
Because of the unique qualities of lauric acid (C:12) present, coconut oil is widely used in soaps and cosmetic manufacturing industries.
Lauric acid is known to possess antiviral, antibacterial, and antiprotozoal qualities.
It is converted to the monoglyceride monolaurin in the human or animal body.
Monolaurin is antiviral, antibacterial, and antiprotozoal.
Reports indicate that monolaurin is capable of destroying lipid-coated viruses such as HIV, herpes, cytomegalovirus, influenza, various pathological bacteria, including Listeria monocytogenes and Helicobactor pylori, and protozoa such as Giardia lamblia.
It is synthesized in babies from the lauric acid of mother's milk.
Capric acid, another fatty acid found in coconut, also has antimicrobial activities.
Tocopherols are the natural antioxidants present in coconut oil.
The volatile flavor constituent of crude coconut oil includes ketones, lactones and δ-lactones of which δL8 to δC10 with undecan-2-1 as the major component at 290 p.p.m. and δ-decalactone as the major lactone component at 97 p.p.m. The flavor and aroma of coconut oil are attributed to δ-octalactone.
Ketones are derived from the microbiological dissociation of fatty acids.
The digestibility coefficient of coconut oil is higher (with 91.0% assimilable glycerides) than any other fat, including butter, and so it is digested more rapidly than any other fats.
This easy digestibility makes it an essential ingredient for many ghee substitutes.
The consumption of saturated oil could hasten the onset of cardiac problems, as suggested by certain research studies.
Coconut Fatty acids, being a saturated oil, caused concern that adversely affected the prospects of the coconut industry.
The major fatty acids of coconut oil are medium-chain fatty acids.
A shorter chain length allows fatty acids to be metabolized without the use of a carnitine transport system.
Since the short- and medium-chain fatty acids can be rapidly oxidized, they are less conducive to fat deposits compared with long-chain fatty acids.
Early studies conducted in experimental animals fed a synthetic diet containing coconut oil as the source of fat have shown it to be atherogenic, since it is deficient in essential fatty acids.
Essential fatty acid deficiency is known to facilitate the development of atherosclerosis.
But under normal conditions, the possibility of essential fatty acid deficiency as such is quite remote, since their presence in other food items will offset any deficiency in coconut oil.
Thus, the increase in lipogenesis observed in earlier studies was due to the faulty design of the experiments.
Feeding Coconut Fatty acids at normal levels along with other fats adequately supplemented with linoleic acid renders coconut oil neutral in terms of atherogenecity.
Epidemiological studies also support this. The University of Kerala conducted a study in 64 volunteers and found no statistically significant alterations in the serum total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, HDL-C/total cholesterol ratio, LDL-C/total cholesterol ratio, and triglycerides from the baseline values.
Feeding Coconut Fatty acids results in an increase in HDL cholesterol.
Recent studies have shown that the presence of natural coconut fat in the diet leads to a normalization of body lipids, protects alcohol damage to the liver, and improves the immune system's antiinflammatory response.
Coconut oil is needed for the good absorption of fat and calcium from infant formulas.
Hence, it has been recommended in infant formulas.
Coconut fatty acid is derived from coconut oil produced from copra, which is the dried albumen of coconut.
It is a distilled fatty acid, used as a component of many products.
It has chemical characteristics that are very close to palm kernel fatty acid which can sometimes replace it.
Historically, dietary fats and oils have engendered considerable debate regarding type and optimal amounts used in the diet, their role in regulating body weight and their importance in the aetiology of chronic disease.
Despite the contentious issues surrounding dietary fats, they are considered essential nutrients because they are required to perform critical functions in the body including serving as a carrier of preformed fat-soluble vitamins, enhancing the bioavailability of fat-soluble micronutrients and providing essential substrate for the synthesis of metabolically active compounds (such as the steroid hormones, testosterone, oestrogen and progesterone) among other useful functions.
These benefits of fats notwithstanding, diets that are high in fat are strongly associated with an increased prevalence of obesity and an increased risk of developing coronary artery disease, high blood pressure, diabetes mellitus, and certain types of cancer.
In Ghana, the prevalence of these chronic non-communicable diseases and their risk factors have increased over time and have contributed significantly to the Ghana's disease burden.
Hypertension, stroke, diabetes and cancers have recently reported as being among the top 10 causes of death in the country.
Prevalence of hypertension currently stands at 13%5 whereas the prevalence of diabetes and hyperlipidaemia in Accra and Kumasi, two major cities, are reported to be ranging between 4% – 9% and 17% – 23% respectively.
Since obesity is the forerunner of many of these non-communicable diseases (NCDs) and consumption of dietary fats and oils in turn play a key role in the development of obesity, it is important to understand what roles these oils play in our diets, health and national development.
In Africa, much of the fat content of traditional diets comes from plant oils such as red palm oil, groundnut oil, coconut oil and sesame oil.
7 Whole-grain cereals also contribute some oils to the diet, especially when the cereal germ is not separated from the grain before milling.
Two of the most important edible oils in the sub-Saharan Africa, are coconut oil and palm oil.
Along with palm kernel oil, they are often referred to collectively, as the tropical oils and are typically known to be rich in saturated fats.
Palm oil, the oil obtained from the oil palm tree (Elaeis guineensis) is one of the most widely used cooking oils in West African countries.
Coconut oil obtained from the coconut tree (Cocos nucifera), also finds extensive use in tropical and subtropicals regions of the world for food and industrial purposes.
The coconut oil traditionally produced in West Africa is made by crushing and pressing copra to extract the oils.
This is done in large mills and the oil is freely available on the market.
Palm kernel oil (which is not the focus of this article) is also produced by first cracking the palm kernel nuts either manually or mechanically, to separate the shells from the kernels.
The kernels are then roasted and milled before the extraction of the oil.
Berget9 however notes that in Ghana and much of West Africa, palm kernel oil is not consumed locally as a food oil to any significant degree.
Local uses are limited to lamp oil and a local soap industry9.
From the above, it is clear, that the saturated fat content of both coconut oil and palm oil have been the basis of the vilification campaigns against their use.
Enig11 traces the origins of the anti-saturated fat campaign to the late 1950s, when a researcher in Minnesota announced that the heart disease epidemic was being caused by hydrogenated vegetable fats.
The edible oil industry's response at that time was to claim that it was only the saturated fat in the hydrogenated oils that was causing the problem.
This was followed by various forms of anti-saturated fat/anti-tropical oils campaigns (from the 1960s through to the mid-1980s) by individual researchers, some multinational companies and even governmental agencies in the United States.
Chong and Ng12 however, noted that, the anti-palm oil (anti-tropical oil) campaigns in the United States were conducted more for economic gains than for genuine concerns of the health of the Americans.
Sadly, this adverse publicity of tropical oil in the United States, has spread worldwide, even to countries in the developing world, with heart disease prevalence far lower than that of the United States.
Furthermore, in the developing world, this adverse publicity is characterized by pressure from all fronts including governmental agencies and health professionals (including nutritionists) to reduce consumption of oils such as palm and coconut oils.
It is true that the phenomenon of the ‘double burden of disease’ is assuming unprecedented proportions in the developing world and the incidence of chronic disease is increasing steadily and even catching up with figures from the developed world.
However, this increase in chronic disease has been attributed more to the ‘westernization’ of diets rather than the consumption of tropical oils, since these fats have been the mainstay (of edible oils) in many developing countries (especially in West Africa) for centuries.
This, dating back even to the period when chronic disease prevalence was extremely low.
Rather, the vilification of coconut and palm oils may be contributing to a situation where there is increased food insecurity (because individuals feel pressured to switch to less affordable and so called ‘healthier’ oils) and decreased quality of the food supply.
This has resulted subsequently in hunger in areas of the developing world where there is shortage of energy and nutrients.
The aim of this paper is thus to contest the negative publicity that coconut and palm oils have suffered, via exploring their unique potential roles in the nutritional and health status of the less endowed peoples of the world, (particularly those from the West African Subregion), and in improving food security to enhance national development.
Nutritional Profile and Metabolism of Dietary Fats — Palm and Coconut Oils in Perspective
Fats and oils are concentrated forms of energy and the energy yield from the complete oxidation of fatty acids is about 9 kcal per gram, in comparison with about 4 kcal per gram for carbohydrates and proteins. Triglycerides, are the most abundant fats found in foods.
They are molecules made of fatty acids (chain-like molecules of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen) linked in groups of three to a backbone of glycerol.
When foods containing fats are consumed, the fatty acids are separated from their glycerol backbone during the process of digestion.
Fats and oils in the diet are thus available to the body as fatty acids.
Fatty acids differ from one another in two ways—in chain length and in the degree of saturation.
With respect to degree of saturation, fatty acids can be classified as saturated (SFA), monounsaturated (MUFA) and poly-unsaturated (PUFA) fatty acids.
Saturated fatty acids, or saturated fats, consist of fatty acids whose carbon chain is “saturated” with hydrogen.
These fats are found primarily in foods of animal origin—meat, poultry, dairy products, and eggs—and in coconut, palm, and palm kernel oils.
High intake of saturated fats is associated with increased risk of coronary artery disease.
Monounsaturated fatty acids are fatty acids that lack one pair of hydrogen atoms on their carbon chain.
Foods rich in monounsaturated fatty acids include canola, nut, and olive oils; they are liquid at room temperature.
A diet that provides the primary source of fat as monounsaturated fat (frequently in the form of olive oil) and includes only small amounts of animal products has been linked to a lower risk of coronary artery disease,
Polyunsaturated fatty acids lack two or more pairs of hydrogen atoms on their carbon chain.
Safflower, sunflower, sesame, corn, and soybean oil are among the rich sources of polyunsaturated fats (which are also liquid at room temperature).
Trans fatty acids (TFAs) are another type of fatty acids, which are either naturally occurring or can be industrially produced in commercial quantities by a process known as hydrogenation.
Hydrogenation involves the treatment of fats and oils with hydrogen gas in the presence of a catalyst resulting in the selective addition of hydrogen to the carbon to carbon double bonds.
In industry, TFAs are created when vegetable oils (mainly the polyunsaturated oils) are partially hydrogenated to convert large numbers (typically 30–60%) of naturally occurring cis unsaturated double bonds into trans unsaturated double bonds.
A high TFA content provides physical and chemical properties that are attractive to food manufacturers.
However, the consumption of these industrially produced partially hydrogenated vegetable oils is reported to be associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease, infertility, endometriosis, gallstones, Alzheimer's disease, diabetes and some cancers.
TFAs also occur naturally in dairy products and meats of ruminants, but it is reported that human consumption is generally low and there is evidence to suggest that it does not adversely affect health.
The details of population dietary guidelines for the quality and quantity of fat intake differ between countries.
However, in consideration of prevention of CHD, dietary guidelines generally reflect advice to reduce average total fat intakes to 30–35% dietary energy and to lower saturated fat intakes to approximately 10% of dietary energy,1 and consumption of trans fatty acids be as low as possible.
Palm oil which is obtained from the mesocarp of the palm fruit, is composed of 50% saturated fatty acids, 40% monounsaturated fatty acids and 10% polyunsaturated fatty acids.8 The saturated fat components are trace amounts of lauric and myristic acids, and a large amount of palmitic acid (44%).
It is important to note then that, of the saturated fatty acids found in diet, lauric and myristic acids (found only in trace amounts in palm oil) have more potential to raise total and LDL cholesterol concentrations whilst palmitic acid (found in abundance in palm oil) is less potent in that regard.
Furthermore, palm oil is used directly in a variety of food processes without undergoing a hydrogenation process, in which some of the cis- double bonds are transformed to the trans-configuration.
Therefore, it is worth noting that palm oil does not contain any trans- unsaturated fatty acid isomers.
Indeed, Sundram, Sambanthamurthi17 have reported that, when palm oil is consumed as part of a low-fat diet (<30% energy), it has been shown to be effective in maintaining desirable plasma cholesterol and lipoprotein cholesterol levels.
The principal triglyceride species in palm oil have palmitic acid at the alphaposition of the molecule, and this location confers the non-hypercholesterolaemic property to the oil.8
When fat is eaten, it must first be digested before it can be absorbed through the intestinal wall.
Most of the digestion of fat occurs in the upper part of the small intestine and is accomplished by special digestive enzymes called lipases which act on fat (triglycerides) that has been emulsified with the aid of bile acids.
The lipases work by breaking the emulsified fat into smaller units.
Some of the fat that is “digested” is broken down into individual fatty acids and glycerol whilst some is broken down into the special intermediate molecules called monoglycerides, which are made of glycerol with one remaining fatty acid still attached.
These monoglycerides are absorbed as such.
By the time some of these fatty acids monoglycerides and glycerol have travelled through the intestinal cell to the lymph stream, they are repackaged into triglycerides.
The duration of fat digestion and absorption depend on the length of the fatty acid chain.
The fatty acid chains can be classified into long chain fatty acids (LCFAs), medium chain fatty acids (MCFAs) and short chain fatty acids (SCFAs).
As indicated earlier in this review, in the past four decades misinformation and disinformation provided by certain politically biased agricultural groups and repeated in both the professional and lay press have led people to believe that all saturated fats are unhealthy.
Little attention is focused on the fact that saturated fatty acids are not a single family of fats but comprise the three subgroups; short- (C2–C6), medium- (C8–C12) and long- (C14–C24) chain fatty acids.
The fat molecules that have long chain fatty acids (LCFAs) are ultimately transported by carriers in the lymph system called chylomicrons, which are manufactured in the intestinal cells for the purpose of transporting these exogenous fat molecules.
The triglycerides are transported by the chylomicrons to the liver or to other tissues.
Once those triglycerides (and their fatty acids) enter the cells, they are again broken apart into increasingly smaller units until they are formed into the final energy molecule called ATP.
This is an oxidative process. Sometimes the oxidation takes place in the peroxisomes but will usually take place in the mitochondria.
If the cells do not immediately need the energy molecule, the small units that have been formed are shunted into the synthesis of fatty acids, and then as triglycerides, they are stored in adipose tissue.
The slow digestion of fat allows for the gradual release of energy so that there is no need for the liver and adipose tissue to synthesize fat.
This slow digestion of fat also helps the body to absorb more of the nutrients that come along with the fat.
The short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) and most of the medium-chain fatty acid (MCFA) molecules, on the other hand, go into the portal blood and are transported to the liver in much the same way that the carbohydrate goes to the liver.
These short-chain and medium-chain fatty acid molecules also supply energy more rapidly like carbohydrates.
The different absorption behaviour of the short and medium-chain fatty acids is exploited for dietetic purposes.
Since they are not re-esterified inside the intestinal mucosa and are bound to and transported with albumin in the blood directly, they often represent the only option for fat absorption in patients whose fatty acid absorption mechanisms are defective.
Furthermore, they have the advantage of being absorbed quantitatively in the intestinal lumen, even with reduced lipase activity.
Herein lies the uniqueness of coconut oil. Coconut oil is made up of about 90% saturated fats and 9% unsaturated fats.
However, the saturated fats in it differ from saturated fats in animal fats.
Over 50% of the fats in coconut oil are medium chain fatty acids, such as lauric acid (12:0).
Coconut oil is the highest natural source of lauric acid.
Lauric acid and its derivative monolaurin constitute around 50% of coconut fat-derived lipid.
However, unlike long chain fatty acids, these medium chain free fatty acids and monoglycerides are absorbed intact from the small intestine, and do not undergo degradation and re-esterification processes.
They are directly used in the body to produce energy, and widely used in infant formulas, nutritional drinks for athletes and intravenous lipid infusions.
Nutritional and Functional Properties of Coconut and Palm Oils — Roles in Enhancing Food and Nutrition Security
The majority of undernourished people live in the developing economies.
FAO20 has reported that the proportion of undernourished people is highest in sub-Saharan Africa, where it is estimated at 30 percent.
Interestingly, many African countries who are still battling poverty, food insecurity, undernutrition, and infectious diseases including the HIV/AIDS epidemic are currently faced with increasing levels of overweight and obesity, leading to a coexistence of undernutrition and overnutrition with their attendant ramifications, popularly known as the ‘double burden of disease’.
Prentice21 partly attributes the emerging obesity phenomenon in Africa to the transformation of the range of goods sold in the village shops.
Prominent among these are large yellow plastic containers of imported vegetable oils.
Throughout Africa these oil containers are recycled as water carriers and have completely displaced the metal kerosene drums that used to fulfil this function, thus providing a vivid visual picture of this one key component of the nutrition transition.
Palm and coconut oils possess remarkable nutritional and functional properties that can be employed to the advantage of the developing countries like Ghana.
West African societies have a long history of recognizing palm oil as a nutritional haven — it has been used as a primary source of dietary fat as well as a remedy for illnesses.
Dietary fats are crucial sources of energy for particularly infants and children in developing countries, and palm oil plays a crucial role as it is commonly used in many stews, gravies and soups eaten with starchy staples in Ghana.
Aside fats, the major nutrient which palm oil contributes to the diet, Wattanapenpaiboon and Wahlqvist8 outline the following minor but nutritionally beneficial components of palm oil;
Palm oil contains α-, β- and γ-carotenes.
These are precursors of vitamin A, which prevents night blindness, aids maintenance of tissues and promotes growth.
In developing countries like Ghana where vitamin A deficiency is a major problem among both adults and children, using palm oil in meals in moderate amounts is a relatively affordable means of ensuring adequate vitamin A intake.
Palm oil contains phytosterols such as sitosterol, stigmasterol and campesterol.
These lipophilic sterols are easily absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract, and then converted through a series of enzymatic reactions into cholesterol, which is a major precursor of steroid hormones.
Squalene, present in palm oil, when in excess amounts has been found to possess a negative feedback inhibition activity on the function of HMG-CoA reductase, an enzyme involved in the production of cholesterol in the liver.
Thus, a moderate use of palm oil is likely to be beneficial for blood lipid profiles.
Palm oil is rich in vitamin E, which is composed mainly of tocopherols and tocotrienols.
These compounds act as potent antioxidants that make it relatively stable to oxidation.
Both animal and human studies show that tocotrienols could reduce plasma cholesterol, apolipoprotein B, thromboxane B2, and platelet factor IV.
They could also inhibit or delay the oxidative deterioration of cellular membranes.
This makes palm oil protective against chronic conditions like cancer which is currently emerging in developing countries like Ghana.
The above benefits notwithstanding, one recently identified drawback that could jeopardize the use of palm oil in developing countries such as Ghana is the adulteration of palm oil with the high levels of Sudan IV dye, a chemical reported to have carcinogenic potential.
The Daily Graphic newspaper in Ghana reports the confiscation of large quantities of palm oil from several markets in Accra by the Food and Drugs Authority (FDA) following positive laboratory tests indicating their contamination with Sudan IV dye.
The FDA's regulatory measures if diligently pursued and sustained should hopefully curb this negative trend and thus prevent palm oil from being further maligned, this time, on account of its safety.
Coconut oil has been shown to have the potential to protect against not only heart disease but a wide variety of chronic health problems including diabetes and cancer as well as a means to prevent and even treat infectious diseases, however, knowledge about coconut oil has been kept buried in medical journals because of a general prejudice against saturated fats.
Coconut oil is composed of the fatty acids, caprylic acid C -8:0 (8%), capric acid, C-10:0,(7%), lauric acid C-12:0, (49%), myristic acid C-14:0(8%), palmitic acid C-16:0 (8%), stearic acid C-18:0 (2%), oleic acid C-18:1 (6%) and 2% of C-18:2 linoleic acid.
DebMandal and Mandal10 report that coconut oil is rich in medium chain saturated fatty acids (lauric acid) which allows them to be directly absorbed from the intestine and sent straight to the liver to be rapidly used for energy production and thus MCFAs do not participate in the biosynthesis and transport of cholesterol.
This cardio-protective attribute of coconut oil can be taken advantage of by developing countries in West Africa that are grappling with the nutrition transition with its attendant upsurge of chronic diet-related diseases including obesity and heart disease.
Fife reports that in Sri Lanka, coconut had been the primary source of dietary fat for thousands of years.
In 1978 the per capita consumption of coconut was equivalent to 120 nuts/year.
At that time the country had one of the lowest heart disease rates in the world. Only one out of every 100,000 deaths was attributed to heart disease, whereas in the United States of America, where very little coconut was eaten and people relied more on polyunsaturated oils, the heart disease death rate at the same time was at least 280 times higher.
As a result of the ‘anti-saturated fat’ campaign coconut consumption in Sri Lanka has declined since 1978. By 1991 per capita consumption had dropped to 90 nuts/year and has continued to fall. In place of coconut oil the people begun to eat more corn oil and other polyunsaturated vegetable oils.
As coconut consumption decreased, heart disease rates increased in Sri Lanka and interestingly, the problem was greater in the urban cities.
This Sri-Lankan scenario could well be playing out in many developing countries in West Africa.
DebMandal and Mandal10 further report, that coconut oil is very effective against a variety of lipid-coated viruses such as visna virus, CMV, Epstein-Barr virus, influenza, virus, leukemia virus, pneumo virus and hepatitis C virus.
The MCFA in coconut oil primarily destroys these organisms by disrupting their membranes, thus interfering with virus assembly and maturation.
Control of infections is crucial on the health agenda of many developing countries in West Africa, and the use of coconut oil could serve as a cheaper alternative means of controlling infections.
In West African diets, coconut and palm oils are often used for frying.
When cooking oils are heated, reactions such as oxidation, hydrolysis, isomerisation and polymerisation occur, resulting in the formation of a variety of volatile compounds and monomeric and polymeric products some of which are potentially toxic.
Some of these oxidised volatile products (eg acrolein and other α,β-unsaturated aldehydes) are known to be responsible for the off-flavour and negative effects on human health.
This makes it important to highlight the attribute of the smoke point of these oils.
The smoke point is the temperature at which a fat or oil produces a continuous wisp of smoke and is a useful indicator of an oil or fat's suitability for frying.
A general rule is that, fats with a higher smoke point are better suited for deep frying, whilst fats with a smoke point below 200 °C are not.
The smoke point of unrefined palm oil is 235 °C whilst that of unrefined coconut oil is 177 °C.29 In this light coconut oil is better suited for shallow frying, which is done at much lower temperatures,whilst palm oil on the other hand is suitable for both deep and shallow frying.
The smoke point is related to the free fatty acid content of oils, thus reheating (re-use) of oils is not recommended as used oils will contain a higher free-fatty acid content, with a consequent decrease in its original smoke point, which will result in higher emissions of volatile compounds at lower temperatures.
Proper ventilation in kitchens is also beneficial in reducing the impact of these potentially toxic volatile compounds.
It is imperative for dietitians and nutritionists to be familiar with this attribute of the oils in order to better educate consumers on their appropriate use.
Role of Palm Oil and Coconut Oil in National Development
Agriculture employs 65 percent of the workforce in Sub-Saharan Africa.
Therefore, the continued expansion of productive and high yield agriculture is essential for the reduction of poverty in Africa and consequently the acceleration of national development.
The production of palm and coconut oils hold promise and represent one of the most effective methods of hoisting developing nations like countries in Sub-Saharan Africa out of poverty, and ensuring food security.
The large scale manufacture of these oils is sure to provide employment for millions of unskilled and semi-skilled workers.
With respect to palm oil production in West Africa, Thompson, reports that Nigeria is currently the third largest producer of palm oil in the world after Indonesia and Malaysia and palm oil production provides jobs for at least 1.8 million Nigerians.
In spite of this impressive profile, Nigeria remains a net importer — its local production is not up to demand, thus Nigeria at present does not export palm oil.
The local shortfall is being supplemented by imports from countries such as Malaysia and Indonesia.
Nigeria thus remains the largest producer of palm oil in West Africa. Incidentally, Ghana, which also has a long history of palm oil production has apparently failed to take it beyond mere potential, due to the use of traditional methods of production coupled with the low quality of palm oil produced which could not make Ghana to meet up with the rising global and domestic demand.
The ministry of food and agriculture website also indicates that, palm oil production, based on small-scale production, was a leading foreign exchange earner for Ghana from about the mid-nineteenth century to the beginning of the twentieth century.
Lessons from strides being made in the palm oil industry in Nigeria however indicate that, if developing economies including both Ghana and Nigeria, will focus some more resources on the sustainable production of palm oil, which is reported to give the highest yield of oil per unit of any crop and is also associated with relatively low production costs, it will be a highly effective means of alleviating poverty and accelerating development of our fledgling economies.
Then we can join the ranks of nations like Indonesia and Papua New Guinea, where palm oil is a major foreign exchange earner.34 World Growth34 further reports that globally, about 3 million smallholder families (equivalent to about 15 million people) are involved in the palm oil sector.
This is a step in the right direction and will provide a means of livelihood for small holders who continue to make significant contributions to national development worldwide.
Unfortunately whilst the palm oil industry is being taken advantage of for economic gains in some parts of the world, Ghanaian oil palm farmers are threatening to abandon the oil palm (whose products fuel palm oil production) and switch to cultivation of rubber and other cash crops.
They cite lack of financial support from government and banks, lack of appropriate pricing for their commodity and no input subsidies or state-sponsored extension services.
The Malaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB) of Malaysia, one of the largest producers of palm oil globally, have outlined some research and development goals intended to support the well-being of its oil palm industry as follows;
to improve the production efficiency and quality of palm oil, kernel oil and biomass products;
to expand and improve the current uses for oil palm products;
to find new uses for oil palm products as a substitute;
to promote the use, consumption and marketability of oil palm products;
and ensure that the oil palm industry is environmentally-friendly.
Governments of developing economies in sub-Saharan Africa, particularly Ghana, will benefit immensely from emulating the Malaysian example and should work towards collaborating with relevant stakeholders to spearhead a thriving oil industry, which will ultimately result in accelerated national development.
Coconut oil has always been known to the people of the Western Region of Ghana because of its immense contributions to individual households and communities.
Almost every household particularly in ‘Nzemaland’ of that region, has something to do with coconut oil in one way or the other.
Apart from using it to cook, coconutoil processing business has served as a major economic activity and generated employment for many.
The Nzema youth association website report that research into small-scale coconut oil processing industries in the Axim District found out how families have improved their living standard as a result of their engagement in the coconut oil business.
These contributions, notwithstanding, disease and neglect of the industry have continually dogged coconut plantations in the Nzemaland, thereby gradually limiting the ability of these processors to continue in business.37
The establishment and support of coconut plantations by government and the relevant stakeholders, will not only add to the total economic GDP of the country, but will invariably make a positive impact on the income of the citizens in the coconut growing areas as well as their diets, thereby contributing to improved health and standards of living.
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Conclusion
Although awareness of the health benefits of coconut and palm oils is becoming increasingly known, many Ghanaians still think of them as unhealthy arteryclogging saturated fats because of the negative antisaturated fat campaigns that have prevailed for decades.
This notwithstanding, the images of coconut and palm oils are gradually evolving worldwide as unique oils, suitable for both edible and non-edible uses.
Consistent messages from health researchers indicate that an overall healthful dietary pattern, rather than individual nutrients is beneficial in the quest for better health and in this context, Katz and Meller report that guidance that places an exaggerated emphasis on the exclusion or inclusion of any one food or nutrient is ill-advised.
Health professionals, particularly dieticians and nutritionists therefore have key roles to play in educating consumers on overall healthy eating patterns, and that includes the appropriate use of these oils.
When prioritized and supported, the coconut and palm oil industries will not only provide foods, income and raw materials, but will also provide employment for the development of the nation.
Some research has provided the groundwork for the production and use of these oils in Africa.
However, more country-specific work remains to be done to find innovative solutions to make the coconut and palm oil industries profitable in the long term, as well as assess their benefits and impacts on human health, industry and the environment.
IUPAC names : (4R,4aR,7S,7aR,12bS)-7-hydroxy-9-methoxy-3-methyl-2,4,4a,7,7a,13-hexahydro-1H-4,12-methanobenzofuro[3,2-e]isoquinoline-11-carboxylic acid
Synonyms:
(5α,6α)-6-Hydroxy-3-methoxy-17-methyl-7,8-didehydro-4,5-epoxymorphinan-1-carbonsäure
(5α,6α)-6-Hydroxy-3-methoxy-17-methyl-7,8-didehydro-4,5-epoxymorphinan-1-carboxylic acid
Acide (5α,6α)-6-hydroxy-3-méthoxy-17-méthyl-7,8-didéhydro-4,5-époxymorphinane-1-carboxylique
Morphinan-1-carboxylic acid, 7,8-didehydro-4,5-epoxy-6-hydroxy-3-methoxy-17-methyl-, (5α,6α)-
