CHLOROPHYLLS

Chlorophylls are used in photosynthesis to absorb light energy and convert it into chemical energy.
Chlorophylls play a crucial role in the production of oxygen and glucose in plants.
Chlorophylls are used as natural food colorants in the food and beverage industry.

Chlorophylls
CAS No: 1406-65-1
EC No: 215-800-7
Molecular Formula: 55H74MgN4O5+2
Molecular Weight: 895.5 g/mol

Chlorophyll a
CAS No: 479-61-8
EC No: 207-536-6
Molecular Formula: C55H72MgN4O5
Molecular Weight: 893.49 g/mol

Chlorophyll b
CAS No: 519-62-0
EC No: 208-259-6
Molecular Formula: C55H70MgN4O6
Molecular Weight: 907.47 g/mol

SYNONYMS:
Chlorofolin, Deodophyll, Chlorofyl, Chlorofyl [Czech], L-Gruen No. 1, L-Gruen No. 1 [German], 00WNZ48OR9, CCRIS 9283, EINECS 215-800-7, C.I. 1956, CHEBI:28966, CHLOROPHYLL [MI], RefChem:575930, CHLOROPHYLL [VANDF], CHLOROPHYLL [WHO-DD], DTXSID7093662, PIGMENTS, BIOLOGICAL, CHLOROPHYLLS, 479-61-8 (CHLOROPHYLL A), 519-62-0 (B), CI Natural Green 3Magnesium ChlorophyllMagnesium Phaeophytin, Chlorophylls: 215-800-7, chlorophyll a: 207-536-6, Chlorophyll b: 208-272-4, 215-800-7, 1406-65-1, chlorophyll, Chlorophylls, UNII-00WNZ48OR9

Chlorophylls are any of several related green pigments found in cyanobacteria and in the chloroplasts of algae and plants.
Chlorophylls' name is derived from the Greek words χλωρός (khloros, "pale green") and φύλλον (phyllon, "leaf").
Chlorophylls allow plants to absorb energy from light.

Those pigments are involved in oxygenic photosynthesis, as opposed to bacteriochlorophylls, related molecules found only in bacteria and involved in anoxygenic photosynthesis.
Chlorophylls absorb light most strongly in the blue portion of the electromagnetic spectrum as well as the red portion.
Conversely, Chlorophylls are poor absorbers of green and near-green portions of the spectrum.

Hence Chlorophylls-containing tissues appear green because green light, diffusively reflected by structures like cell walls, is less absorbed.
Two types of Chlorophylls exist in the photosystems of green plants: Chlorophylls a and b.
Chlorophylls play a crucial role in photosynthesis and are abundantly found in green fruits and vegetables that form an integral part of our diet.

Although limited, existing studies suggest that these photosynthetic pigments and their derivatives possess therapeutic properties.
These bioactive molecules exhibit a wide range of beneficial effects, including antioxidant, antimutagenic, antigenotoxic, anti-cancer, and anti-obesogenic activities.
Chlorophylls, a complex green pigment found in plants, algae, and certain bacteria, play a crucial role in the process of photosynthesis by absorbing light energy and converting it into chemical energy.

While early beliefs about the bioavailability and stability of Chlorophylls under different conditions limited research on its health effects, recent studies have shed light on the potential benefits of chlorophyllin as a chemopreventive agent.
Nagini et al. have provided insights into its molecular mechanisms.
Although in vitro and in vivo studies suggest its anticancer effects, evidence of its efficacy in humans remains scarce.

Dietary supplements containing Chlorophylls and chlorophyllin are available and generally considered safe, with no reported adverse side effects over several decades of human use.
Despite the potential health benefits associated with chlorophyll, a significant number of chlorophyll-rich vegetables, leafy materials, and fruits are lost throughout the food supply chain.
This loss occurs despite the underutilized potential of these agro-food residues.

Harnessing and utilizing this discarded material could contribute to the transition towards a more sustainable circular economy.
Chlorophylls are any member of the most important class of pigments involved in photosynthesis, the process by which light energy is converted to chemical energy through the synthesis of organic compounds.
Chlorophylls are found in virtually all photosynthetic organisms, including green plants, cyanobacteria, and algae.

Chlorophylls absorb energy from light; this energy is then used to convert carbon dioxide to carbohydrates.
Chlorophylls occur in several distinct forms: chlorophylls a and b are the major types found in higher plants and green algae; chlorophylls c and d are found, often with a, in different algae; Chlorophylls e is a rare type found in some golden algae; and bacterio-Chlorophylls occurs in certain bacteria.

In green plants, chlorophylls occur in membranous disklike units (thylakoids) in organelles called chloroplasts.
The Chlorophylls molecule consists of a central magnesium atom surrounded by a nitrogen-containing structure called a porphyrin ring; attached to the ring is a long carbon–hydrogen side chain, known as a phytol chain.
Variations are due to minor modifications of certain side groups.

Chlorophylls is remarkably similar in structure to hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying pigment found in the red blood cells of mammals and other vertebrates.
A green pigment, present in algae and higher plants, that absorbs light energy and thus plays a vital role in photosynthesis.
Except in Cyanophyta (blue-green algae), chlorophylls are confined to chloroplasts.

There are several types of chlorophyll, but all contain magnesium and iron.
Some plants (e.g., brown algae, red algae, copper beech trees) contain additional pigments that mask the green of their Chlorophylls.
Chlorophylls are green pigments found in all algae, higher plants and cyanobacteria (also known as blue-green algae).

Chlorophylls allow the plants and algae to photosynthesize, the process where light energy is used to convert carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates (sugars) and gives off oxygen as a byproduct.
Chlorophylls play an important role in making plants green and healthy.
Chlorophylls also have vitamins, antioxidants, and therapeutic properties that may have potential health benefits.

You can get Chlorophylls from either plants or supplements, although supplements may be more effective.
This is because Chlorophylls may not survive digestion long enough for absorption.

USES and APPLICATIONS of CHLOROPHYLLS:
Typical applications for chlorophylls include confectionery, desserts, beverages, dairy products, ice cream, fruit preparation, bakery products, soups, sauces, snack food, seasonings, and convenience food.
Chlorophylls are a porphyrin derivative conjugated with a magnesium ion that is found in plant chloroplasts, algae and cyanobacteria.
Chlorophylls are essential to the process of photosynthesis.

Chlorophylls absorb light in the blue and red parts of the visible spectrum and transfers the absorbed photon energy to an electron, which is used to produce ATP.
Porphyrin derivatives containing magnesium that act to convert light energy in photosynthetic organisms.
Chlorophylls are obtained by solvent extraction of strains of edible plant material, grass, lucerne and nettle.

During the subsequent removal of solvent, the naturally present coordinated magnesium may be wholly or partly removed from the chlorophylls to give the corresponding phaeophytins.
The principal colouring matters are the phaeophytins and magnesium chlorophylls.
The extracted product, from which the solvent has been removed, contains other pigments such as carotenoids as well as oils, fats and waxes derived from the source material.

Only the following solvents may be used for the extraction: acetone, methyl ethyl ketone, dichloromethane, carbon dioxide, methanol, ethanol, propan-2-ol and hexane.
Chlorophylls are used in photosynthesis to absorb light energy and convert it into chemical energy.
Chlorophylls play a crucial role in the production of oxygen and glucose in plants.

Chlorophylls are used as natural food colorants in the food and beverage industry.
Chlorophylls are applied in dietary supplements due to their potential antioxidant properties.
Chlorophylls are used in medicine for wound healing and odor control.

Chlorophylls are utilized in cosmetics for their skin-soothing and anti-aging effects.
Chlorophylls are studied in cancer research for their possible protective effects against carcinogens.
Chlorophylls are used in environmental applications, such as detecting plant health and stress.

Chlorophylls are applied in solar energy research to develop bio-inspired energy systems.
Chlorophylls are also used in educational and laboratory experiments to study plant biology and photosynthesis.

-Culinary uses of Chlorophylls:
Synthetic Chlorophylls are registered as a food additive colorant, and their E number is E140.
Chefs use Chlorophylls to color a variety of foods and beverages green, such as pasta and spirits.
Absinthe gains its green color naturally from the Chlorophylls introduced through the large variety of herbs used in its production.
Chlorophylls are not soluble in water, and it is first mixed with a small quantity of vegetable oil to obtain the desired solution.

-Chlorophylls are used in marketing:
In years 1950–1953 in particular, Chlorophylls was used as a marketing tool to promote toothpaste, sanitary towels, soap and other products.
This was based on claims that it was an odor blocker — a finding from research by F. Howard Westcott in the 1940s — and the commercial value of this attribute in advertising led to many companies creating brands containing the compound.

However, it was soon determined that the hype surrounding Chlorophylls was not warranted and the underlying research may even have been a hoax.
As a result, brands rapidly discontinued their use.
In the 2020s, Chlorophylls again became the subject of unsubstantiated medical claims, as social media influencers promoted its use in the form of "Chlorophylls water", for example.

Chlorophylls are obtained by solvent extraction of grass, lucerne, nettle and other plant material.
The principal coloring matters are the phaeophytins and magnesium chlorophylls; the extracted product, from which the solvent has been removed, contains other pigments such as carotenoids as well as oils, fats and waxes derived from the source material.

BENEFITS OF CHLOROPHYLLS SUPPLEMENTS:
Chlorophylls supplements are actually chlorophyllin, which contains copper instead of magnesium.
When doses of Chlorophyllins are taken, the copper can be detected in plasma, which implies absorption has occurred.
Luckily, Chlorophyllins has similar properties to Chlorophylls.

When you’re shopping for Chlorophylls supplements, you may notice that the marketed benefits are:
*stimulating the immune system
*eliminating fungus in the body
*detoxifying your blood
*cleaning your intestines
*getting rid of foul odors
*energizing the body
*preventing cancer

HISTORY 
Chlorophylls were first isolated and named by Joseph Bienaimé Caventou and Pierre Joseph Pelletier in 1817.
The presence of magnesium in Chlorophylls was discovered in 1906, and was the first detection of that element in living tissue.
After initial work done by German chemist Richard Willstätter spanning from 1905 to 1915, the general structure of Chlorophylls a was elucidated by Hans Fischer in 1940.

By 1960, when most of the stereochemistry of Chlorophylls a was known, Robert Burns Woodward published a total synthesis of the molecule.
In 1967, the last remaining stereochemical elucidation was completed by Ian Fleming, and in 1990 Woodward and co-authors published an updated synthesis.
Chlorophylls f was announced to be present in cyanobacteria and other oxygenic microorganisms that form stromatolites in 2010; a molecular formula of C55H70O6N4Mg and a structure of (2-formyl)-Chlorophylls a were deduced based on NMR, optical and mass spectra.

CHEMICAL STRUCTURE of CHLOROPHYLLS:
Several chlorophylls are known.
All are defined as derivatives of the parent chlorin by the presence of a fifth, ketone-containing ring beyond the four pyrrole-like rings.
Most chlorophylls are classified as chlorins, which are reduced relatives of porphyrins (found in hemoglobin).
Chlorophylls share a common biosynthetic pathway with porphyrins, including the precursor uroporphyrinogen III.

Unlike hemes, which contain iron bound to the N4 center, most chlorophylls bind magnesium.
The axial ligands attached to the Mg2+ center are often omitted for clarity.
Appended to the chlorin ring are various side chains, usually including a long phytyl chain (C20H39O).

The most widely distributed form in terrestrial plants is Chlorophylls a.
Chlorophylls a has methyl group in place of a formyl group in Chlorophylls b.
This difference affects the absorption spectrum, allowing plants to absorb a greater portion of visible light.

Chlorophylls e is reserved for a pigment that has been extracted from algae in 1966 but not chemically described.
Besides the lettered chlorophylls, a wide variety of sidechain modifications to the Chlorophylls structures are known in the wild.
For example, Prochlorococcus, a cyanobacterium, uses 8-vinyl Chl a and b.

WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS OF CHLOROPHYLLS?
Researchers continue to explore how chlorophyll may be beneficial for health and wellness.
Let’s explore a little bit of what we know so far.

***Skin healing
In smaller studies, Chlorophyllins has shown possible effects in reducing inflammation and bacterial growth in skin wounds.
An older 2008 review of wound care research involved several studies on ointments containing papain-urea-chlorophyllin.

While individual studies found this ointment more effective than other treatments, the reviewers note that larger, better-controlled studies are required to confirm these findings.
Chlorophyllins may also be effective for other skin conditions, as evidenced by the results of two pilot studies.

A pilot study is a small-scale preliminary study performed before a larger study or trial.
A 2015 pilot study of 10 people with acne and large pores saw skin improvement when using topical Chlorophyllins gel for 3 weeks.
Another 2015 pilot study, also involving 10 people, found that using topical Chlorophyllins over 8 weeks improved sun-damaged skin.

A 2018 study involving 24 people investigated the possible skin benefits of an over-the-counter (OTC) topical gel containing Chlorophyllins and other ingredients.
The results showed improvement in skin aging and acne.
However, it’s important to note that Chlorophyllins was not the only ingredient in the ointment, so it is difficult to isolate its specific benefit.

***Blood builder
Some people suggest that liquid chlorophyll can build your blood by improving the quality of red blood cells.
A 2004 pilot study suggested that wheatgrass, which contains about 70% chlorophyll, reduced the number of blood transfusions needed in people with thalassemia, a blood disorder.
However, it’s important to note that the study authors didn’t conclude that chlorophyll was the reason for the decreased need for transfusions.

Wheatgrass also contains a high amount of iron, which may support the creation of red blood cells in people affected by iron deficiency anemia.
It also contains beneficial antioxidants.
Researchers still are not sure if liquid chlorophyll specifically benefits red blood cells.

***Detoxification and cancer
Researchers have looked into the effect of chlorophyll and Chlorophyllins on cancer.
A 2018 study assessed the effect of chlorophyll on the growth of pancreatic cancer cells.
Trials are also being planned to examine how a chlorophyll-rich diet, which would involve increasing intake of leafy greens like spinach and parsley, could impact colon cancer risk.

A diet high in chlorophyll-rich food may also provide increased fiber and antioxidants, which may benefit cancer prevention.
However, a 2019 feasibility study found that adherence to such a diet was lower than expected, with participants meeting guidelines only 73.2% of the time.

A 2023 review of research notes that chlorophyll may have benefits for multiple types of cancer, including:
*colon cancer
*liver cancer
*pancreatic cancer
*lung cancer
The MD Anderson Cancer Center notes that a diverse, nutritious, plant-based diet may help reduce cancer risk by supporting overall health and the immune system.

***Weight loss
One of the most popular claims associated with liquid chlorophyll is that it supports weight loss.
However, research into this topic is currently very limited.
A 2014 study involving 38 female participants found that those who took a green plant membrane supplement, which included chlorophyll, once daily had greater weight loss than those who didn’t.
The researchers also suggested that the supplement reduced harmful cholesterol levels.

The mechanism behind these findings, and whether it involves chlorophyll, is currently unknown.
A review of test tube and animal studies suggests that chlorophyll may decrease the number of fatty acids absorbed by intestinal cells and reduce the accumulation of lipids, or fats.
A natural deodorant

While Chlorophyllins have been used since the 1940s to neutralize certain odors, studies are outdated and show mixed results.
The most recent study of people with trimethylaminuria, a condition that causes a fishy odor, found that Chlorophyllins significantly decreased the amount of triethylamine.
As for claims about Chlorophyllins reducing bad breath, there’s little evidence to support it.

CHLOROPHYLLS: CHEMICAL PROPERTIES AND METABOLISM:
Chlorophylls are complex molecules made up of a porphyrin ring, a magnesium ion, and an attached hydrocarbon tail.
The porphyrin ring is responsible for absorbing light energy and the magnesium ion acts as an electron acceptor.
Chlorophylls have many forms such as Chlorophylls a, Chlorophylls b, Chlorophylls c, Chlorophylls d and Chlorophylls e.

The most common form of Chlorophylls found in plants is Chlorophylls a.
Its chemical structure includes a porphyrin ring with a central magnesium ion, and an attached hydrocarbon tail known as a phytol.

The porphyrin ring is made up of four nitrogen-containing groups called pyrrole, and the phytol tail is composed of isoprenoid units.
Chlorophylls a absorbs light most efficiently in the red and blue regions of the spectrum, with peak absorption at around 430 and 662 nanometers, respectively.

Chlorophylls b is another form of Chlorophylls found in plants, algae, and some bacteria.
Its chemical structure is similar to that of Chlorophylls a, but it has a slightly different porphyrin ring.
This difference results in Chlorophylls b absorbing light in the blue-green region of the spectrum, with peak absorption at around 453 nanometers.

Chlorophylls b also has a role in photosynthesis, but its main function is to protect Chlorophylls a from excess light.
In addition to Chlorophylls a and b, there are other forms of Chlorophylls such as Chlorophylls c, Chlorophylls d, and Chlorophylls e.

These are found in a variety of organisms, such as algae, and they have different absorption spectra and different functions.
Chlorophylls c absorb light in the blue-green region of the spectrum, Chlorophylls d absorb light in the red region of the spectrum, and Chlorophylls e absorb light in the far-red region of the spectrum.

Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria convert light energy into chemical energy.
The light energy is absorbed by Chlorophylls and other pigments, which excite electrons in the pigment molecules.

After absorbing light energy, the excited electrons in Chlorophylls are utilized to facilitate the synthesis of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and NADPH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate), which are essential components for the subsequent phases of photosynthesis.
These energy-rich molecules play a crucial role in the production of glucose and the release of oxygen as byproducts.

The first stage of photosynthesis is known as the light-dependent reactions which take place in the thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts.
The light energy absorbed by Chlorophylls and other pigments is used to drive the transfer of electrons, which results in the production of ATP and NADPH.

The second stage of photosynthesis is known as the light-independent reactions, also called the Calvin cycle, which takes place in the stroma of chloroplasts.
In this stage, the ATP and NADPH produced in the light-dependent reactions are used to drive the production of glucose and oxygen.

Chlorophylls, chlorophyllides, and phycobiliproteins such as phycoerythrin and phycocyanin are all pigments that are involved in the process of photosynthesis.
Chlorophylls are the primary pigment found in plants and algae, while chlorophyllides and phycobiliproteins are found in smaller quantities.
The main difference between these pigments is their chemical structure, which results in different absorption spectra and therefore different functions in photosynthesis.

The process of obtaining pheophorbides from Chlorophylls is called Chlorophylls degradation, which is a process that occurs naturally in plants and algae.
This process can be triggered by different environmental factors such as light intensity, temperature, and water availability.

During Chlorophylls degradation, Chlorophylls is broken down into different pigments, including pheophytin, which is a form of Chlorophylls that lacks a magnesium ion, and pheophorbide, which is a form of Chlorophylls that has been modified by the removal of the phytol tail.

Chlorophyllides are pigments that are closely related to chlorophyll, and they differ in the arrangement of atoms.
Their chemical structure is similar to Chlorophylls but they have a different central atom such as zinc, iron, or copper, and they have different absorption spectra.
They are found in prokaryotic organisms such as cyanobacteria and they have a role in photosynthesis similar to chlorophyll.

Phycobiliproteins such as phycoerythrin and phycocyanin are found in cyanobacteria and red algae.
They are water-soluble pigments that are composed of a protein component and a pigment component.
They absorb light in different regions of the spectrum than chlorophyll, they transfer the energy to Chlorophylls and they are important in photosynthesis by increasing the efficiency of light harvesting

PHOTOSYNTHESIS of CHLOROPHYLLS:
Chlorophylls are vital for photosynthesis, which allows plants to absorb energy from light.
Chlorophylls molecules are arranged in and around photosystems that are embedded in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts.
In these complexes, Chlorophylls serve three functions:

The function of the vast majority of Chlorophylls (up to several hundred molecules per photosystem) is to absorb light.
Having done so, these same centers execute their second function: The transfer of that energy by resonance energy transfer to a specific Chlorophylls pair in the reaction center of the photosystems.
This specific pair performs the final function of chlorophylls: Charge separation, which produces the unbound protons (H+) and electrons (e−) that separately propel biosynthesis.

The two currently accepted photosystem units are photosystem I and photosystem II, which have their own distinct reaction centres, named P700 and P680, respectively.
These centres are named after the wavelength (in nanometers) of their red-peak absorption maximum.

The identity, function and spectral properties of the types of Chlorophylls in each photosystem are distinct and determined by each other and the protein structure surrounding them.
The function of the reaction center of Chlorophylls is to absorb light energy and transfer it to other parts of the photosystem.

The absorbed energy of the photon is transferred to an electron in a process called charge separation.
The removal of the electron from the Chlorophylls is an oxidation reaction.
The Chlorophylls donate the high energy electron to a series of molecular intermediates called an electron transport chain.

The charged reaction center of Chlorophylls (P680+) is then reduced back to its ground state by accepting an electron stripped from water.
The electron that reduces P680+ ultimately comes from the oxidation of water into O2 and H+ through several intermediates.

This reaction is how photosynthetic organisms such as plants produce O2 gas, and is the source for practically all the O2 in Earth's atmosphere.
Photosystem I typically works in series with Photosystem II; thus the P700+ of Photosystem I is usually reduced as it accepts the electron, via many intermediates in the thylakoid membrane, by electrons coming, ultimately, from Photosystem II.

Electron transfer reactions in the thylakoid membranes are complex, however, and the source of electrons used to reduce P700+ can vary.
The electron flow produced by the reaction center Chlorophylls pigments is used to pump H+ ions across the thylakoid membrane, setting up a proton-motive force a chemiosmotic potential used mainly in the production of ATP (stored chemical energy) or to reduce NADP+ to NADPH.

NADPH is a universal agent used to reduce CO2 into sugars as well as other biosynthetic reactions.
Reaction center chlorophyll–protein complexes are capable of directly absorbing light and performing charge separation events without the assistance of other Chlorophylls pigments, but the probability of a single 
Chlorophylls molecule doing so under a given light intensity is small.
Thus, the other chlorophylls in the photosystem and antenna pigment proteins all cooperatively absorb and funnel light energy to the reaction center.

Besides Chlorophylls a, there are other pigments, called accessory pigments, which occur in these pigment–protein antenna complexes.
These pigments complement Chlorophylls by absorbing photons at wavelengths outside of chlorophyll's narrow absorption spectrum and deliver additional electrons to the photosystem.

There are two main types of photosynthesis: those that generate oxygen (called oxygenic photosynthesis) and those that don’t (called anoxygenic photosynthesis).
For the most part, oxygenic phototrophs have Chlorophylls whereas anoxygenic phototrophs have bacteriochlorophyll.

The overall structure of these two pigments is very similar.
They both have the distinctive tetrapyrrole ring with a Mg2+ in the center and a long 20-carbon phytol tail that helps anchor them to the photosynthetic membrane.

The differences occur in the substitutions around the ring and in the length and substitutions on the phytol tail.
There are four different types of chlorophyll; a and b are the most common.

There are also seven known variants of bacteriochlorophylls.
These types of Chlorophylls and bacterioChlorophylls differ in structure, and those differences affect the specific wavelength of light that each can absorb, which allows several different species of microbes together to collect the full spectrum of light, each absorbing a different range of wavelengths.

Here is a list of the known types of Chlorophylls and bacteriochlorophyll:
Chlorophylls a absorbs red light (around 680 nm) and is the main pigment in higher plants, many algae and the cyanobacteria.
Chlorophylls b also absorbs red light (660 nm) and is found in all higher plants, as well as a group of bacteria called prochlorophytes.

Chlorophylls c is found in eukaryotic microbes, like marine and freshwater algae, and absorbs red light (between 450 and 640).
Chlorophylls d is found in a type of cyanobacterium that lives in areas lacking visible light, but containing infrared radiation (700 nm to 730 nm), like nestled underneath corals and algae.

BacterioChlorophylls a and b absorb infrared radiation (in the range of 800 to 1,040 nm) and are found in the purple bacteria.
BacterioChlorophylls c, d, and e absorb far red light (in the 720 nm to 755 nm range) and are found in the green sulfur bacteria.

BacterioChlorophylls cs also absorb far red light (720 nm) and is found in the green nonsulfur bacteria.
BacterioChlorophylls g absorb red or far red light (at either 670 nm or 788 nm) and is found in the heliobacteria.

CHLOROPHYLLS CONTENT IN FRUITS AND VEGETABLES:
Modern societies are currently facing food waste problems that are increasing as the world’s population also increases, leading to economic and environmental issues.
Food losses and waste occur at all stages of the food supply chain: agricultural production, post-harvest handling and storage, processing, distribution, and consumption stages.
Simultaneously with these difficulties, changes in eating habits, increased consumption of more processed foods, and less variety in diets have contributed to the increase in modern societies’ diseases such as obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and atherosclerosis.

The discarded material can be a valuable resource to answer these problems.
For instance, leafy material or fruit peels, which are discarded in these first stages, are usually rich in bioactive compounds beneficial to health.
The use of these currently discarded products may represent a return to past eating habits, with the use of more diverse foods, sometimes not so appealing, but with less caloric concentrations and rich in a high variety of bioactive compounds.

For example, broccoli is one of the most produced crops worldwide, where only the inflorescence part is used, while the stem and leaves are discarded.
Nevertheless, this discarded material, in addition to glucosinolates, is also extremely rich in chlorophylls, especially the leaves.
The researchers' group evaluated the Chlorophylls and carotenoid contents in the broccoli plant in two different harvest years (Supplementary Methods).

When it comes to green plants and vegetables, storage and processing conditions greatly impact the green color of these foods conferred by chlorophyll, whose degradation can be delayed or accelerated by these conditions.
This, in turn, has a great influence on the behavior of the final consumer, that is, not consuming them if the products do not have an attractive green color, thus further contributing to food waste.
Based on the provided information, here are some observations regarding the processing methods and conditions that can help retain higher Chlorophylls content in certain fruits and vegetables:

(i) Boiling: Boiling for a shorter duration appears to be more effective in retaining Chlorophylls content.
For example, in the case of green beans, boiling for 5 min resulted in higher Chlorophylls content compared to longer boiling times;

(ii) Steaming: Steaming for a moderate duration seems to be beneficial for maintaining Chlorophylls levels.
In the case of spinach, steaming for 7.5 min resulted in higher Chlorophylls content compared to both shorter and longer steaming times;

(iii) Microwaving: Microwaving for a shorter duration tends to preserve Chlorophylls content.
For instance, in the case of peas, microwaving for 1.5 min resulted in higher Chlorophylls content compared to longer microwaving times;

(iv) Storage conditions: Some vegetables, such as celery and leek, demonstrated a decrease in Chlorophylls content after storage at low temperatures (0 °C) for an extended period.
Therefore, it is advisable to minimize storage time at low temperatures to maintain higher Chlorophylls levels.

It is important to note that the optimal method and conditions for preserving Chlorophylls content may vary depending on the specific fruit or vegetable being processed.
Additionally, other factors such as the desired texture, taste, and nutrient retention should also be considered when determining the best processing method for a particular food item.
Further research and experimentation may be necessary to obtain more specific and comprehensive guidelines for maximizing Chlorophylls retention during food processing.

MEASUREMENT OF CHLOROPHYLLS CONTENT:
Chlorophylls can be extracted from the protein into organic solvents.
In this way, the concentration of Chlorophylls within a leaf can be estimated.
Methods also exist to separate Chlorophylls a and Chlorophylls b.

In diethyl ether, Chlorophylls a has approximate absorbance maxima of 430 nm and 662 nm, while Chlorophylls b has approximate maxima of 453 nm and 642 nm.
The absorption peaks of Chlorophylls a are at 465 nm and 665 nm.
Chlorophylls a fluoresces at 673 nm (maximum) and 726 nm.

The peak molar absorption coefficient of Chlorophylls a exceeds 105 M−1 cm−1, which is among the highest for small-molecule organic compounds.
In 90% acetone-water, the peak absorption wavelengths of Chlorophylls a are 430 nm and 664 nm; peaks for Chlorophylls b are 460 nm and 647 nm; peaks for Chlorophylls c1 are 442 nm and 630 nm; peaks for Chlorophylls c2 are 444 nm and 630 nm; peaks for Chlorophylls d are 401 nm, 455 nm and 696 nm.

Ratio fluorescence emission can be used to measure Chlorophylls content.
By exciting Chlorophylls a fluorescence at a lower wavelength, the ratio of Chlorophylls fluorescence emission at 705±10 nm and 735±10 nm can provide a linear relationship of Chlorophylls content when compared with chemical testing.

The ratio F735/F700 provided a correlation value of r2 0.96 compared with chemical testing in the range from 41 mg m−2 up to 675 mg m−2.
Gitelson also developed a formula for direct readout of Chlorophylls content in mg m−2.
The formula provided a reliable method of measuring Chlorophylls content from 41 mg m−2 up to 675 mg m−2 with a correlation r2 value of 0.95.

Also, the Chlorophylls concentration can be estimated by measuring the light transmittance through the plant leaves.
The assessment of leaf Chlorophylls content using optical sensors such as Dualex and SPAD allows researchers to perform real-time and non-destructive measurements.
Research shows that these methods have a positive correlation with laboratory measurements of chlorophyll.

BIOSYNTHESIS of CHLOROPHYLLS:
In some plants, Chlorophylls is derived from glutamate and is synthesised along a branched biosynthetic pathway that is shared with heme and siroheme.
Chlorophylls synthase is the enzyme that completes the biosynthesis of Chlorophylls a:
chlorophyllide a + phytyl diphosphate ⇌ Chlorophylls a + diphosphate

This conversion forms an ester of the carboxylic acid group in chlorophyllide a with the 20-carbon diterpene alcohol phytol.
Chlorophylls b is made by the same enzyme acting on chlorophyllide b.
The same is known for Chlorophylls d and f, both made from corresponding chlorophyllides ultimately made from chlorophyllide a.

In Angiosperm plants, the later steps in the biosynthetic pathway are light-dependent.
Such plants are pale (etiolated) if grown in darkness.
Non-vascular plants and green algae have an additional light-independent enzyme and grow green even in darkness.

Chlorophylls are bound to proteins.
Protochlorophyllide, one of the biosynthetic intermediates, occurs mostly in the free form and, under light conditions, acts as a photosensitizer, forming free radicals, which can be toxic to the plant.
Hence, plants regulate the amount of this Chlorophylls precursor.

In angiosperms, this regulation is achieved at the step of aminolevulinic acid (ALA), one of the intermediate compounds in the biosynthesis pathway.
Plants that are fed by ALA accumulate high and toxic levels of protochlorophyllide; so do the mutants with a damaged regulatory system

SENESCENCE AND THE CHLOROPHYLLS CYCLE:
The process of plant senescence involves the degradation of chlorophyll: for example the enzyme chlorophyllase (EC 3.1.1.14) hydrolyses the phytyl sidechain to reverse the reaction in which chlorophylls are biosynthesised from chlorophyllide a or b.
Since chlorophyllide a can be converted to chlorophyllide b and the latter can be re-esterified to Chlorophylls b, these processes allow cycling between chlorophylls a and b.

Moreover, Chlorophylls b can be directly reduced (via 71-hydroxyChlorophylls a) back to Chlorophylls a, completing the cycle.
In later stages of senescence, chlorophyllides are converted to a group of colourless tetrapyrroles known as nonfluorescent Chlorophylls catabolites (NCC's) with the general structure
These compounds have also been identified in ripening fruits.

DISTRIBUTION of CHLOROPHYLLS:
Chlorophylls maps from 2002 to 2024, provided by NASA, show milligrams of Chlorophylls per cubic meter of seawater each month.
Places where Chlorophylls amounts are very low, indicating very low numbers of phytoplankton, are blue.
Places where Chlorophylls concentrations are high, meaning many phytoplankton were growing, are yellow.

The observations come from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA's Aqua satellite.
Land is dark gray, and places where MODIS could not collect data because of sea ice, polar darkness, or clouds are light gray.

The highest Chlorophylls concentrations, where tiny surface-dwelling ocean plants are, are in cold polar waters or in places where ocean currents bring cold water to the surface, such as around the equator and along the shores of continents.
It is not the cold water itself that stimulates the phytoplankton.

Instead, the cool temperatures are often a sign that the water has welled up to the surface from deeper in the ocean, carrying nutrients that have built up over time.
In polar waters, nutrients accumulate in surface waters during the dark winter months when plants cannot grow.
When sunlight returns in the spring and summer, the plants flourish in high concentrations.

6 THINGS TO KNOW ABOUT CHLOROPHYLLS:
We all know that eating your greens is good for you, but what if you could extract the green and take it as a supplement?
A recent trend has seen more people doing exactly that.

Chlorophylls are the substance that give plants their green color, and Chlorophylls supplements in liquid or tablet form are becoming popular.
Chlorophylls is an antioxidant that can boost your health.
But does Chlorophylls have the same benefits when it’s taken as a supplement?

Here are six things she wants you to know about chlorophyll.
Chlorophylls are not the name you see on the label.
Chlorophylls are the name of the green pigment that plants use to make food during a process called photosynthesis.

But if you try to buy it as a supplement, you will likely see it called chlorophyllin, which is a water-soluble form of Chlorophylls that contains copper and sodium.
These extra minerals are there to make it easier for your body to absorb.
The effects of Chlorophylls are unclear.

Supplement makers claim that Chlorophylls can do many things, like boost red blood cells, help with weight loss, heal damaged skin, neutralize toxins, cut inflammation and prevent cancer.
It’s an impressive list, but few of the claims are backed by scientific evidence.
There is some research that shows Chlorophylls skin products could potentially fight acne, and there’s been very, very limited evidence about weight loss.

Aside from that, we know it comes from plants and contains antioxidants. That's about the extent of what we can safely confirm.
Liquid might be better than tablet form.
If you want to try chlorophyll, liquid supplements might be a better value because they are more easily absorbed by your body.

But you should talk to your doctor before you start taking chlorophyll.
Chlorophylls are available in all green plants.
You don’t need to take supplements to add Chlorophylls to your diet.

You can simply eat green fruits and vegetables.
Even frozen vegetables contain chlorophyll.
You get Chlorophylls when you eat broccoli, spinach or any other green fruit or vegetable.

You may absorb slightly more Chlorophylls from a supplement, but fruits and vegetables will give you other vitamins and minerals.
They will also give you fiber, which is essential for good digestion and maintaining healthy blood sugar levels.

Green is not the only important color.
Adding extra Chlorophylls to your diet is nothing new.

How could we forget that wheatgrass shot trend?
That was all about Chlorophylls.
Wheatgrass is very high in the green substance.

But it’s important to remember that all colors of fruit and vegetable are valuable.
You want to try to eat a variety of colors so that you're maximizing the number of different nutrients for your body.

For example, orange foods like carrots are high in beta carotene, purple foods like eggplant contain anthocyanin, and red foods like tomato contain lycopene.
Each color contains different phytochemicals, and your body benefits from all of them.

Nothing can replace a healthy diet.
No amount of Chlorophylls is going to reverse the damage that unhealthy foods can do.
Refined carbohydrates and other sugary foods can cause chronic inflammation and disease.

Processed meats increase your risk for cancer.
Fried foods and processed foods can also cause damage and lack the nutrients your body needs.
The best way to ensure that you feel good and reduce your disease risk is to eat a plant-based diet of whole grains, vegetables, fruits, nuts, beans and seeds, with some lean or plant proteins.

It’s also important to stay active throughout the day and get at least 150 minutes of moderate exercise, or 75 minutes of vigorous exercise each week.
If you take Chlorophylls, it should truly be a supplement.
It may provide a little bit of extra benefit, but you still need to eat greens and other vegetables for the fiber and other nutrients that Chlorophylls is not going to contain, and you still need to exercise.

PHYSICAL and CHEMICAL PROPERTIES of CHLOROPHYLLS:
Molecular Formula: C55H74MgN4O5+2
Molecular Weight: 895.5 g/mol
Molecular Weight: 895.5 g/mol
Hydrogen Bond Donor Count: 3
Hydrogen Bond Acceptor Count: 7
Rotatable Bond Count: 22
Exact Mass: 894.5509632 Da
Monoisotopic Mass: 894.5509632 Da
Topological Polar Surface Area: 103 Ų
Heavy Atom Count: 65

Formal Charge: 2
Complexity: 2320
Isotope Atom Count: 0
Defined Atom Stereocenter Count: 4
Undefined Atom Stereocenter Count: 0
Defined Bond Stereocenter Count: 4
Undefined Bond Stereocenter Count: 0
Covalently-Bonded Unit Count: 2
Compound Is Canonicalized: Yes

Chlorophyll a
CAS No: 479-61-8
EC No: 207-536-6
Molecular Formula: C55H72MgN4O5
Molecular Weight: 893.49 g/mol
Chlorophyll b
CAS No: 519-62-0
EC No: 208-259-6
Molecular Formula: C55H70MgN4O6
Molecular Weight: 907.47 g/mol

Appearance: Green to bluish-green waxy solid
Physical State: Solid
Odor: Characteristic, mild
Solubility in Water: Insoluble
Solubility in Organic Solvents: Soluble in ethanol, acetone, chloroform, ether, benzene
Molecular Structure: Tetrapyrrole (porphyrin) ring with phytol chain
Central Ion: Magnesium (Mg²⁺)
Polarity: Amphiphilic (hydrophilic head, hydrophobic tail)
Melting Point: Decomposes before melting (no sharp melting point)
Boiling Point: Not applicable (decomposes)
Density: Not well-defined (varies depending on form and purity)

pH Stability: Stable in neutral to slightly alkaline conditions
Acid Stability: Unstable (converts to pheophytin in acidic media)
Thermal Stability: Heat-sensitive
Light Stability: Light-sensitive (photodegradation occurs)
Oxidation Stability: Susceptible to oxidation
Absorption Peaks: ~430–450 nm (blue region), ~660–680 nm (red region)
Color: Bright green (neutral/alkaline), olive-brown (acidic conditions)
Fluorescence: Red fluorescence under exposure
Chemical Reactivity: Reactive under acidic, oxidative, and conditions
Lipophilicity: High (due to phytol chain)

FIRST AID MEASURES of CHLOROPHYLLS:
-Description of first-aid measures
*General advice:
Show this material safety data sheet to the doctor in attendance.
*If inhaled:
After inhalation: 
Fresh air.
*In case of skin contact: 
Take off immediately all contaminated clothing. 
Rinse skin with
water/ shower.
*In case of eye contact:
After eye contact: 
Rinse out with plenty of water. 
Call in ophthalmologist. 
Remove contact lenses.
*If swallowed:
After swallowing: 
Immediately make victim drink water (two glasses at most). 
Consult a physician.
-Indication of any immediate medical attention and special treatment needed.
No data available

ACCIDENTAL RELEASE MEASURES of CHLOROPHYLLS:
-Environmental precautions:
Do not let product enter drains.
-Methods and materials for containment and cleaning up:
Cover drains. 
Collect, bind, and pump off spills. 
Observe possible material restrictions. 
Take up dry. 
Dispose of properly. 
Clean up affected area.

FIRE FIGHTING MEASURES of CHLOROPHYLLS:
-Extinguishing media:
*Suitable extinguishing media:
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 
Foam 
Dry powder
*Unsuitable extinguishing media:
For this substance/mixture no limitations of extinguishing agents are given.
-Further information:
Prevent fire extinguishing water from contaminating surface water or the ground water system.

EXPOSURE CONTROLS/PERSONAL PROTECTION of CHLOROPHYLLS:
-Control parameters:
--Ingredients with workplace control parameters:
-Exposure controls:
--Personal protective equipment:
*Eye/face protection:
Use equipment for eye protection. 
Safety glasses
*Body Protection:
protective clothing
*Respiratory protection:
Recommended Filter type: Filter A 
-Control of environmental exposure:
Do not let product enter drains.

HANDLING and STORAGE of CHLOROPHYLLS:
-Conditions for safe storage, including any incompatibilities:
*Storage conditions:
Tightly closed. 
Dry.

STABILITY and REACTIVITY of CHLOROPHYLLS:
-Chemical stability:
The product is chemically stable under standard ambient conditions (room temperature).
-Possibility of hazardous reactions:
No data available