PIPER METHYSTICUM

Piper Methysticum is consumed as a ceremonial and social drink in Polynesia, Micronesia, and Melanesia, known for inducing relaxation, sociability, and mild euphoria
Medicinal and Therapeutic Uses of Piper Methysticum: Anxiolytic and sedative properties—used for anxiety, insomnia, stress, PMS, menopausal symptoms
Piper Methysticum is used analgesic, muscle relaxant, and anticonvulsant—linked to actions of kavalactones on ion channels and neurotransmitter systems

CAS Number: 84696-40-2 (standardized extract)
EC Number: 283-648-9
Plant Composition (roots, dried): approx. 43% starch, 20% dietary fiber, 15% kavalactones (range 3–20%), rest water, sugars, protein, minerals 
As a whole plant extract, Piper methysticum doesn’t have a CAS number, but standardized kava extracts may use 84696-40-2 with EC Number 283-648-9

SYNONYMS:
Kava kava, Kawa kawa, 'Ava (Samoa), 'Awa (Hawaii), Malak (Vanuatu), Rauschpfeffer (Germany), Sakao (Pohnpei), Yaqano (Fiji), Kava-kava, kawa, kavain, rauschpfeffer, intoxicating long pepper, tonga, yagona, yaqona, kava, kava kava, awa, ava, intoxicating pepper, kava pepper, kawa, kew, sakau, tonga, yagera (yagona), rauschpfeffer

Kava or kava kava (Piper methysticum: Latin 'pepper' and Latinized Greek 'intoxicating') is a plant in the pepper family, native to the Pacific Islands.
The name kava is from Tongan and Marquesan, meaning 'bitter'.

Piper Methysticum can refer to either the plant or a psychoactive beverage made from its root.
The beverage is a traditional ceremonial and recreational drink from Polynesia, Micronesia, and Melanesia.
Nakamals and Piper Methysticum bars exist in many countries.

Traditional Piper Methysticum is made by grinding fresh or dried Piper Methysticum root, mixing it with water or coconut milk, and straining it into a communal bowl.
Outside the South Pacific, Piper Methysticum is typically prepared by soaking dried root powder in water and straining it.

Piper Methysticum is consumed socially for its sedative, hypnotic, muscle relaxant, anxiolytic, and euphoric effects, comparable to those produced by alcohol.
Piper Methysticum also produces a numbing sensation in the mouth.

Piper Methysticum consists of sterile cultivars clonally propagated from its wild ancestor, Piper wichmanii.
Piper Methysticum originated in northern Vanuatu, where it was domesticated by farmers around 3,000 years ago through selective cultivation.

Historically, the beverage was made from fresh Piper Methysticum; preparation from dry Piper Methysticum emerged in response to the efforts of Christian missionaries in the 18th and 19th centuries to prohibit the drinking of Piper Methysticum.

According to in vitro research, the pharmacological effects of Piper Methysticum stem primarily from six major Piper Methysticumlactones that modulate GABAA, dopamine, norepinephrine, and CB1 receptors, and inhibit MAO-B and ion channel mechanisms.
Reviews of research have indicated an effect of Piper Methysticum on anxiety, but its specific efficacy for generalized anxiety disorder remains inconclusive.

There appears to be no significant cognitive impairment from consumption.
Piper Methysticum does not exhibit the addictive properties associated with many other substances of abuse.

Moderate consumption of Piper Methysticum in its traditional form, as a water-based suspension of Piper Methysticum roots, is considered by the World Health Organization to present an "acceptably low level of health risk."

However, consumption of Piper Methysticum extracts produced with organic solvents or excessive amounts of low-quality Piper Methysticum products may be linked to an increased risk of adverse health outcomes, including liver injury.
Piper Methysticum is conspecific with Piper wichmannii, indicating Piper Methysticum was domesticated from Piper wichmannii (syn. Piper subbullatum).

Piper Methysticum was spread by the Austronesian Lapita culture after contact eastward into the rest of Polynesia.
Piper Methysticum is endemic to Oceania and is not found in other Austronesian groups.
Piper Methysticum reached Hawaii, but it is absent in New Zealand, where it cannot grow.

Consumption of Piper Methysticum is also believed to be the reason why betel nut chewing, ubiquitous elsewhere, was lost for Austronesians in Oceania.
According to Lynch (2002), the reconstructed Proto-Polynesian term for the plant, *Piper Methysticum, was derived from the Proto-Oceanic term *kawaR in the sense of a "bitter root" or "potent root".

It may have been related to reconstructed *wakaR (in Proto-Oceanic and Proto-Malayo-Polynesian) via metathesis.
It originally referred to Zingiber zerumbet, used to make a similar mildly psychoactive bitter drink in Austronesian rituals.
Cognates for *Piper Methysticum include Pohnpeian sa-kau; Tongan, Niue, Rapa Nui, Tuamotuan, and Rarotongan Piper Methysticum; Samoan, Tahitian, and Marquesan ʻava; and Hawaiian ʻawa.

In some languages, most notably Māori kawa, the cognates have come to mean "bitter", "sour", or "acrid" to the taste.
In the Cook Islands, the reduplicated forms of kawakawa or Piper Methysticum are also applied to the unrelated members of the genus Pittosporum.
In other languages, such as Futunan, compound terms like Piper Methysticum atua refer to other species belonging to the genus Piper.

The reduplication of the base form is indicative of falsehood or likeness, in the sense of "false Piper Methysticum".
In New Zealand, Piper Methysticum was applied to the kawakawa (Piper excelsum), which is endemic to New Zealand and nearby Norfolk Island and Lord Howe Island.

It was exploited by the Māori based on previous knowledge of the Piper Methysticum, as the latter could not survive in the colder climates of New Zealand.
The Māori name for the plant, kawakawa, is derived from the same etymon as Piper Methysticum, but reduplicated.

It is a sacred tree among the Māori people.
It is seen as a symbol of death, corresponding to the rangiora (Brachyglottis repanda), which is the symbol of life.
However, kawakawa has no psychoactive properties.

Its connection to Piper Methysticum is linked to its similarity in appearance and bitter taste.
Other names for Piper Methysticum include ʻawa (Hawaii), ʻava (Samoa), yaqona or yagona (Fiji), sakau (Pohnpei), seka (Kosrae), and malok or malogu (parts of Vanuatu).

Piper Methysticum is a beverage or extract made from the Piper methysticum plant.
In the South Pacific, Piper Methysticum's a popular drink that is used in ceremonies for relaxation.
The name "kava" comes from the Polynesian word "awa," which means bitter.

Piper Methysticum affects the brain and other parts of the central nervous system.
Chemicals called kavalactones that are found in Piper Methysticum are believed to be responsible for its effects.
Piper Methysticum is a drug made from the ground roots of the plant Piper methysticum, a member of the pepper family that also includes black pepper.

Piper Methysticum is a native plant found in the South Pacific.
Piper Methysticum can be taken as a drink or as a supplement or extract.
Traditionally the root is crushed, ground or powdered and soaked in water to be drunk as a tea.

This tea is often consumed socially and as part of traditional ceremonies and cultural practices throughout the South Pacific Islands.
In small doses, the effects of Piper Methysticum include muscle relaxation, sleepiness and feelings of wellbeing.
However, long-term use of Piper Methysticum can lead to a range of health problems, including malnutrition, weight loss and apathy.

USES and APPLICATIONS of PIPER METHYSTICUM:
People commonly use Piper Methysticum for anxiety.
Piper Methysticum's also used for stress, withdrawal from drugs called benzodiazepines, sleeping problems, and many other purposes, but there is no good scientific evidence to support many of these uses.

Piper Methysticum (Kava) is a tall shrub in the pepper family native to the Pacific islands, where it's traditionally used in ceremonies for relaxation.
Traditional and Cultural Uses: Piper Methysticum is consumed as a ceremonial and social drink in Polynesia, Micronesia, and Melanesia, known for inducing relaxation, sociability, and mild euphoria

Medicinal and Therapeutic Uses of Piper Methysticum: Anxiolytic and sedative properties—used for anxiety, insomnia, stress, PMS, menopausal symptoms
Piper Methysticum is used analgesic, muscle relaxant, and anticonvulsant—linked to actions of kavalactones on ion channels and neurotransmitter systems

Potential anticancer properties, especially via flavokavains (e.g., A & B), Piper Methysticum is demonstrated in vitro and in vivo against cancers like bladder, breast, and prostate

-Supplements and pharmaceutical preparations
Water extraction is the traditional method for preparation of Piper Methysticum.
Pharmaceutical and herbal supplement companies extract kavalactones from the Piper Methysticum plant using solvents such as supercritical carbon dioxide, acetone, and ethanol to produce pills standardized with between 30% and 90% kavalactones.

-Edible Uses of Piper Methysticum:
The roots and stems of Piper Methysticum are the source of a stimulating alkaloidal beverage called kawa that is widely consumed in some Polynesian Islands.

Piper Methysticum has a calming effect whilst also promoting mental clarity.
The roots of Piper Methysticum can weigh up to 7 kilos.

To prepare the beverage, Piper Methysticum parts are pulverized by grinding or mastication, suspended in water and then sieved to remove the residue.
The resulting milky-brown liquid is the beverage.

-Medicinal uses of Piper Methysticum:
Piper Methysticum is a bitter, very pungent, warming herb with a lilac aroma.
Piper Methysticum is diuretic, relieves pain, relaxes spasms and has a stimulatory effect upon the circulatory and nervous systems.

Calming and stimulating at low doses, large doses cause intoxication and euphoria.
Piper Methysticum also has a reputation as an aphrodisiac.

Piper Methysticum has a hot, aromatic and bitter taste that leaves the mouth feeling slightly numbed.
Piper Methysticum is taken internally in the treatment of genito-urinary infections, gall bladder complaints, arthritis and rheumatism.

Piper Methysticum bark scrapings are chewed to soothe sore throats and toothaches.
Externally, Piper Methysticum is used to relieve joint pains.
The roots are harvested as required, and can be used fresh or dried.

In Fiji, convulsions and stiffness in children are treated with liquid pressed from the leaves.
The leaves are chewed as a treatment for bronchitis.

Externally, the leaves are rubbed onto centipede bites, insect stings and stings from poisonous fish.
The branches are used in a remedy for sore throats.
An infusion of the leaves is spread onto a certain type of inflammation and is used to treat watery vaginal discharges.

-Uses of Piper Methysticum:
This tropical shrub, Piper Methysticum, is infrequently grown in the U.S. except for Hawaii.
In temperate climates, Piper Methysticum may be grown in containers that are overwintered indoors from fall to spring.

USES & EFFECTIVENESS of PIPER METHYSTICUM:
*Anxiety: 
Taking Piper Methysticum by mouth for at least 5 weeks seems to reduce anxiety and might work as well as some prescription anti-anxiety medications.

There is interest in using Piper Methysticum for a number of other purposes, but there isn't enough reliable information to say whether it might be helpful.

Piper Methysticum is a much-branched shrub growing up to 4 metres tall.
Piper Methysticum produces several stems 1 - 3cm in diameter from a large, thick, woody rhizome.

Piper Methysticum is a herb with major ritual and cultural significance in the Pacific Islands where it is widely used in social ceremonies and as a means of communicating with the Gods.

Often harvested from the wild, Piper Methysticum is also cultivated, especially in home gardens in the Pacific.
Piper Methysticum is commonly sold in local markets, and is also exported to Europe, America etc where it is used medicinally.

HOW DO PEOPLE USE PIPER METHYSTICUM?
Traditionally, people use Piper Methysticum root to make beverages that cause mild to moderate sedation and feelings of euphoria.
In some traditional cultures, people drink Piper Methysticum like those in other parts of the world drink coffee.
Now that Piper Methysticum has become more widely known, many people buy Piper Methysticum supplements for the plant's purported ability to reduce anxiety.

Piper Methysticum is a plant indigenous to the Pacific Rim and the Hawaiian Islands whose root and rhizome are used to prepare a non-fermented beverage with relaxant effects that is used for social and recreational purposes.

Piper Methysticum roots are chewed or ground into a pulp and added to cold water, and the resulting brew-reported to mimic the effects of an alcoholic beverage-has been used as a ceremonial drink in the Pacific Islands for hundreds of years.

While Piper Methysticum is considered a sacred plant in the South Pacific and is used in a variety of ceremonies, it is also used in traditional medicine to relieve anxiety, stress, fatigue, and insomnia, and to treat urinary tract infections and menopausal symptoms.
It is believed that Piper Methysticum was introduced to the West by Captain James Cook in 1768.

Over the past two decades, Piper Methysticum has gained popularity in Western countries, where it is promoted in supplemental form for anxiety, insomnia, and stress.
Piper Methysticum is available in health food stores and on the Internet in the form of tablets, capsules, liquid extracts, and tinctures.

CHARACTERISTICS of PIPER METHYSTICUM:
Piper Methysticum was historically grown only in the Pacific islands of Hawaii, Federated States of Micronesia, Vanuatu, Fiji, the Samoas, and Tonga.

Piper Methysticum appears to have originated in Vanuatu; an inventory of P. methysticum distribution showed it was cultivated on numerous islands of Micronesia, Melanesia, Polynesia, and Hawaii, whereas specimens of P. wichmannii were all from Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu.

Traditionally, plants are harvested around four years of age, as older plants have higher concentrations of Piper Methysticumlactones.
After reaching about 2 metres (6.6 ft) in height, plants grow a wider stalk and additional stalks, but not much taller.
The roots can reach a depth of 60 centimetres (2.0 ft).

CULTIVARS
Piper Methysticum consists of sterile cultivars cloned from its wild ancestor, Piper wichmanii.
Today, Piper Methysticum comprises hundreds of different cultivars grown across the Pacific.
Each cultivar has not only different requirements for successful cultivation, but also displays unique characteristics both in terms of its appearance and its psychoactive properties.

NOBLE AND NON-NOBLE PIPER METHYSTICUM
Scholars make a distinction between the so-called noble and non-noble Piper Methysticum.
The latter category comprises the so-called tudei (or "two-day") Piper Methysticums, medicinal Piper Methysticums, and wild Piper Methysticum (Piper wichmanii, the ancestor of domesticated Piper methysticum).

Traditionally, only noble Piper Methysticums have been used for regular consumption, due to their more favourable composition of Piper Methysticumlactones and other compounds that produce more pleasant effects and have lower potential for causing negative side effects, such as nausea, or "Piper Methysticum hangover".

The perceived benefits of noble cultivars explain why only these cultivars were spread around the Pacific by Polynesian and Melanesian migrants, with presence of non-noble cultivars limited to the islands of Vanuatu, from which they originated.
More recently, it has been suggested that the widespread use of tudei cultivars in the manufacturing of several Piper Methysticum products might have been the key factor contributing to the rare reports of adverse reactions to Piper Methysticum observed among the consumers of Piper 
Methysticum-based products in Europe.
Tudei varieties have traditionally not been grown in Hawaii and Fiji, but in recent years there have been reports of farmers attempting to grow "isa" or "palisi" non-noble cultivars in Hawaii, and of imports of dried tudei Piper Methysticum into Fiji for further re-exporting.

The tudei cultivars may be easier and cheaper to grow: while it takes up to 5 years for noble Piper Methysticum to mature, non-noble varieties can often be harvested just one year after being planted.

The concerns about the adverse effects of non-noble varieties, produced by their undesirable composition of Piper Methysticum lactones and high concentrations of potentially harmful compounds (flavokavains, which are not present in any significant concentration in the noble varieties), have led to legislation prohibiting exports from countries such as Vanuatu.

Likewise, efforts have been made to educate non-traditional customers about the difference between noble and non-noble varieties and that non-noble varieties do not offer the same results as noble cultivars.

In recent years, government regulatory bodies and non-profit NGOs have been set up with the declared aim of monitoring Piper Methysticum quality; producing regular reports; certifying vendors selling proper, noble Piper Methysticum; and warning customers against products that may contain tudei varieties.

SCIENTIFIC CLASSIFICATION     EDIT THIS CLASSIFICATION
Kingdom:            Plantae
Clade:                Tracheophytes
Clade:                Angiosperms
Clade:                Magnoliids
Order:                Piperales
Family:                Piperaceae
Genus:                Piper
Species:            P. methysticum
Binomial name             Piper methysticum

GROWING REGIONS of PIPER METHYSTICUM:
In Vanuatu, exportation of Piper Methysticum is strictly regulated.
Only cultivars classified as noble are allowed to be exported.
Only the most desirable cultivars for everyday drinking are classified as noble to maintain quality control.

In addition, their laws mandate that exported Piper Methysticum must be at least five years old and farmed organically.
Their most common noble cultivars are "Borogu" or "Borongoru" from Pentecost Island, "Melomelo" from Aoba Island (called Sese in the north 
Pentecost Island), and "Palarasul" Piper Methysticum from Espiritu Santo.
In Vanuatu, Tudei ("two-day") Piper Methysticum is reserved for special ceremonial occasions and exporting it is not allowed.
"Palisi" is a common Tudei variety.

In Hawaii, there are many other cultivars of Piper Methysticum (Hawaiian: ʻawa).
Some of the most common cultivars are Mahakea, Moʻi, Hiwa, and Nene.

The Aliʻi (kings) of precolonial Hawaii coveted the Moʻi variety, which had a strong cerebral effect due to a predominant amount of the kavalactone Piper Methysticumin.

This sacred variety was so important to them that no one but royalty could ever experience it, "lest they suffer an untimely death".
The reverence for Hiwa in old Hawaiʻi is evident in this portion of a chant recorded by Nathaniel Bright Emerson and quoted by E. S. Craighill and Elizabeth Green Handy: "This refers to the cup of sacramental ʻawa brewed from the strong, black ʻawa root (ʻawa hiwa), which was drunk sacramentally by the kumu hula":

The day of revealing shall see what it sees:
*A seeing of facts, a sifting of rumors,
*An insight won by the black sacred 'awa,
*A vision like that of a god!

Winter describes a hula prayer for inspiration that contains the line, He ʻike pū ʻawa hiwa.
Pukui and Elbert translated this as "a knowledge from Piper Methysticum offerings".
Winter explains that ʻawa, especially of the Hiwa variety, was offered to hula deities in return for knowledge and inspiration.

More recently, specialized Piper Methysticum varieties have been introduced to South Florida which have been acclimated and adapted to grow well in South Florida's unique soil and climate and have significant resistance to pest and disease pressures.
As of 2024, cultivation of these varieties is limited to a small number of commercial farms and backyard growers.

Relationship with kawakawa
The Kawakawa (Piper excelsum) plant, known also as "Māori Piper Methysticum", may be confused with Piper Methysticum.
While the two plants look similar and have similar names, they are different, but related, species.
Kawakawa is a small tree endemic to New Zealand, having importance to traditional medicine and Māori culture.

As noted by the Piper Methysticum Society of New Zealand, "in all likelihood, the Piper Methysticum plant was known to the first settlers of Aotearoa [New Zealand].
It is also possible that (just like the Polynesian migrants that settled in Hawaii) the Maori explorers brought some Piper Methysticum with them.

Unfortunately, most of New Zealand is simply too cold for growing Piper Methysticum and hence the Maori settlers lost their connection to the sacred plant."
Further, "in New Zealand, where the climate is too cold for Piper Methysticum, the Maori gave the name kawa-kawa to another Piperaceae M. excelsum, in memory of the Piper Methysticum plants they undoubtedly brought with them and unsuccessfully attempted to cultivate.

The Maori word kawa also means "ceremonial protocol", recalling the stylized consumption of the drug typical of Polynesian societies".
Kawakawa is commonly used in Maori traditional medicine for the treatment of skin infections, wounds, and cuts, and (when prepared as a tea) for stomach upsets and other minor illnesses.

COMPOSITION of PIPER METHYSTICUM:
Fresh Piper Methysticum root contains on average 80% water.
Dried root contains approximately 43% starch, 20% dietary fiber, 15% kavalactones, 12% water, 3.2% sugars, 3.6% protein, and 3.2% minerals.
In general, kavalactone content is greatest in the roots and decreases higher up the plant into the stems and leaves.

Relative concentrations of 15%, 10%, and 5% have been observed in the root, stump, and basal stems, respectively.
The relative content of kavalactones depends not only on plant segment but also on the Piper Methysticum plant variety, plant maturity, geographic location, and time of harvest.

The Piper Methysticumlactones present are kavain, desmethoxyyangonin, and yangonin, which are higher in the roots than in the stems and leaves, with dihydrokavain, methysticin, and dihydromethysticin also present.
The mature roots of the Piper Methysticum plant are harvested after a minimum of four years (at least five years, ideally) for peak Kavalactone content.

Most Piper Methysticum plants produce around 50 kg (110 lb) of root when they are harvested.
Piper Methysticum root is classified into two categories: crown root (or chips) and lateral root.
Crown roots are the large-diameter pieces that look like 1.5 to 5 inches (38 to 127 mm)-diameter wooden poker chips.

Most Piper Methysticum plants consist of approximately 80% crown root upon harvesting.
Lateral roots are smaller-diameter roots that look more like a typical root.
A mature Piper Methysticum plant has about 20% lateral roots.

Piper Methysticum lateral roots have the highest content of Kavalactones in the Piper Methysticum plant.
"Waka" grade Piper Methysticum is made of lateral roots only.

PHARMACOLOGY of PIPER METHYSTICUM:
Constituents
A total of 18 different kavalactones (or kavapyrones) have been identified to date, at least 15 of which are active.
However, six of them, including kavain, dihydrokavain, methysticin, dihydromethysticin, yangonin, and desmethoxyyangonin, have been determined to be responsible for about 96% of the plant's pharmacological activity.

Some minor constituents, including three chalcones—flavokavain A, flavokavain B, and flavokavain C—have also been identified, as well as a toxic alkaloid (not present in the consumable parts of the plant), pipermethystine.
Alkaloids are present in the roots and leaves.

PHARMACODYNAMICS of PIPER METHYSTICUM:
The following pharmacological actions have been reported for Piper Methysticum and/or its major active constituents:
Potentiation of GABAA receptor activity (by kavain, dihydrokavain, methysticin, dihydromethysticin, and yangonin).
Inhibition of the reuptake of norepinephrine (by kavain and methysticin) and possibly also of dopamine (by kavain and desmethoxyyangonin).

Binding to the CB1 receptor (by yangonin).
Inhibition of voltage-gated sodium channels and voltage-gated calcium channels (by kavain and methysticin).
Monoamine oxidase B reversible inhibition (by all six of the major kavalactones).

Methanolic leaf extracts of Hawaiian Piper Methysticum cultivars showed stronger binding inhibition to several CNS receptors—including GABAA, dopamine D2, opioid (μ, δ), and histamine (H1, H2)—than root extracts, suggesting that compounds beyond the main kavalactones may contribute to the pharmacological effects of Piper Methysticum leaves.

MECHANISMS OF ACTION of PIPER METHYSTICUM:
Kavain modulates voltage-gated sodium and calcium channels, potentiates GABA_A receptor function (not via benzodiazepine site), and inhibits monoamine oxidase (MAO-A/B), influencing mood and anxiety pathways

Yangonin: a potent MAO-A and MAO-B inhibitor, with neuroprotective and antifungal activities, and modulates GABA_A signaling
Methysticin enhances GABA_A receptor activity, induces CYP1A1 and inhibits CYP2C9, highlighting potential for drug interactions

Piper methysticum (kava) is a culturally significant and pharmacologically active plant with benefits for anxiety, sleep, and social relaxation.
Piper Methysticum's key compounds—kavalactones and flavokavains—act via multiple neurochemical pathways, offering therapeutic promise.
However, safety concerns, particularly regarding liver toxicity and drug interactions, warrant cautious use—especially in extract forms.

CULTIVATION DETAILS of PIPER METHYSTICUM:
A plant of the wet, lowland tropics, where Piper Methysticum is found at elevations up to 800 metres.
Piper Methysticum grows best in areas where annual daytime temperatures are within the range 22 - 35°c, but can tolerate 14 - 40°c.

Piper Methysticum prefers a mean annual rainfall in the range 2,200 - 4,000mm, but tolerates 1,800 - 5,000mm.
Prefers a shady position when young, although older plants are more tolerant of sunny positions.

Prefers a well-drained, stony soil with ample water.
Succeeds in most soils of at least moderate fertility.

Prefers a pH in the range 5.5 - 6.5, tolerating 5 - 7.
Requires a position sheltered from strong winds.

A slow-growing plant.
At the age of 10 months the average root weight is about 1 kilo per plant.

The crop is potentially profitable when harvested after 3 - 4 years.
The life span of Piper Methysticum may be 15 - 30 years.

DETECTION of PIPER METHYSTICUM:
Recent usage of Piper Methysticum has been documented in forensic investigations by quantitation of kavain in blood specimens.
The principal urinary metabolite, conjugated 4'-OH-kavain, is generally detectable for up to 48 hours.

PHARMACOKINETICS of PIPER METHYSTICUM:
Kavalactones are quickly absorbed in the gut and vary in bioavailability.
They primarily act on brain areas like the limbic system, amygdala, and reticular formation, but their exact molecular mechanisms are not yet fully understood.

In humans, kavain undergoes extensive hepatic metabolism, primarily via cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzyme-mediated pathways, followed by further phase II biotransformation processes such as sulfonation, glucuronidation, and glutathione (GSH) conjugation.

PREPARATIONS of PIPER METHYSTICUM:
***Traditional preparation
The traditional Piper Methysticum beverage is prepared through aqueous extraction of the fresh or dried roots of the Piper methysticum plant.
When using fresh roots, the outer layer is typically peeled before the root is either chewed or mechanically ground into a fine, fibrous pulp, which is then mixed with water.

For dried roots, Piper Methysticum is finely ground, placed in a porous cloth, and infused in water.
The resulting brew is usually consumed immediately after preparation, often from a communal bowl.

Traditional and recreational preparation of Piper Methysticum beverage involves macerating, grinding, or pounding fresh or dried rhizome/root (1.0–1.5 g) and mixing it with water or coconut milk (100–150 mL) to form an emulsion, which is then agitated and strained through cloth or bark filters into a communal bowl.

The resulting drink is grey and slightly pungent, with fresh rhizome/root producing a stronger and more complex beverage than dried forms due to the retention of volatile compounds.

In Vanuatu, fresh root is commonly used, while in non-Pacific countries, Piper Methysticum is typically prepared from dried root powder soaked in water (about one tablespoon per cup) for 30 minutes before straining.
On Pohnpei in Micronesia, preparation also includes mixing the Piper Methysticum root with the fibrous bark of Hibiscus tiliaceus before pressing.

Chewing produces the strongest effect because it produces the finest particles.
The strength also depends on the species and techniques of cultivation.

In Vanuatu, a strong Piper Methysticum drink is normally followed by a hot meal or tea.
The meal traditionally follows some time after the drink so that the psychoactives are absorbed into the bloodstream more quickly.
Traditionally, no flavoring is added.

In Papua New Guinea, the locals in Madang province refer to their Piper Methysticum as waild koniak ("wild cognac" in English).
Fijians commonly share a drink called grog, made by pounding sun-dried Piper Methysticum root into a fine powder, straining and mixing it with cold water.

Traditionally, grog is drunk from the shorn half-shell of a coconut, called a bilo.
Grog is commonly used in Fiji, especially among young men, and often brings people together for storytelling and socializing.
Drinking grog for a few hours brings a numbing and relaxing effect to the drinker; grog also numbs the tongue, and grog drinking typically is followed by a "chaser" or sweet or spicy snack to follow a bilo.

CULTURE of PIPER METHYSTICUM:
Piper Methysticum is used for medicinal, religious, political, cultural, and social purposes throughout the Pacific.
These cultures have a great respect for the plant and place a high importance on Piper Methysticum.

In Fiji, for example, a formal yaqona (Piper Methysticum) ceremony will often accompany important social, political, or religious functions, usually involving a ritual presentation of the bundled roots as a sevusevu (gift) and drinking of the yaqona itself.
Due to the importance of Piper Methysticum in religious rituals and the seemingly (from the Western point of view) unhygienic preparation method, its consumption was discouraged or even banned by Christian missionaries.

The nakamal, traditionally the central meeting place in Vanuatu, serves as a cultural and social hub where Piper Methysticum is consumed to facilitate communal gathering, dialogue, and the exchange of knowledge across different groups and generations.

BARS of PIPER METHYSTICUM:
Bars serving Piper Methysticum beverage exist outside of the South Pacific.
Piper Methysticum bars exist in several American cities as social, alcohol-free spaces, with the number increasing to around 180 establishments between 2012 and 2017.

Piper Methysticum is an herbal remedy that's made from the roots of Piper methysticum -- a type of plant found in the islands of the Pacific Ocean.
Piper Methysticum's name literally means “intoxicating pepper.”

People who live on Pacific islands like Fiji and Tonga have used it for hundreds of years in social gatherings and traditional medicine.
They dry out the roots or crush them into a powder.
Then they add water and drink the mixture.

HOW’S PIPER METHYSTICUM USED?
Piper Methysticum (“kava” for short) contains substances called kavapyrones.
They act much like alcohol on your brain, making you feel calm, relaxed, and happy.

Piper Methysticum is also thought to relieve pain, prevent seizures, and relax muscles.
You can buy it as an herbal supplement online and in health food stores.
Piper Methysticum's available in capsules, tablets, or tinctures (that means it’s dissolved in alcohol).

Piper Methysticum has been used to treat a number of conditions, including:
*Anxiety -- including generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)
*Stress
*Trouble sleeping
*Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) -- the physical and emotional symptoms that come before a woman's period

NOTEWORTHY CHARACTERISTICS of PIPER METHYSTICUM:
Piper methysticum, commonly called kava, is an upright, dioecious, evergreen shrub that grows to 10-15’ tall with heart-shaped glossy dark green leaves (to 6” long.).
Piper Methysticum currently grows on a number of South Pacific islands (Micronesia, Fiji, Hawaii, New Guinea, the Samoas, Tonga and Vanuatu), but the specific place of origin is unknown.

Male plants produce short cylindrical spikes (to 5” long) of small creamy white flowers, but female plants rarely flower.
Roots reportedly have a long history of use in the South Pacific islands for certain herbal/medicinal preparations, including a sedative drink called Piper Methysticum which is now commercially sold in bottles.

Piper Methysticum is a cash crop in Vanuatu and Fiji.
The beverage is consumed to promote relaxation and ease stress without interfering with alert mental functioning.
Piper Methysticum is also taken as a sacrament prior to ceremonies or in the spirit of friendship at social get-togethers.

Active ingredients in the roots of Piper Methysticum are kavalactones which have sedative and anesthetic properties.
Preparation involves grinding or pounding the root into a powder and adding the powder to water.
Piper nigrum is the source of black and white pepper used throughout the world.

Genus name comes from the Latin name from the Greek word peperi, itself derived from an Indian name.
Specific epithet means intoxicating.

PROBLEMS of PIPER METHYSTICUM:
No serious insect or disease problems.

PHYSICAL and CHEMICAL PROPERTIES of PIPER METHYSTICUM:
Scientific Name: Piper methysticum (“intoxicating pepper”)
Synonyms: kava, kava kava, awa, ava, sakau, tonga
CAS Number: 84696-40-2 (standardized extract)
EC Number: 283-648-9

Key Constituents: Kavalactones (kavain, yangonin, methysticin), flavokavains, alkaloids
Plant Composition (roots, dried): ~43% starch, 20% dietary fiber, 15% kavalactones (3–20%), remainder water, sugars, protein, minerals
Key Bioactive Compounds: Kavalactones (≥6 major types), flavokavains A & B (<1%), piperidine alkaloids (pipermethystine in aerial parts)
Traditional Uses: Ceremonial beverage, anxiolytic, muscle relaxant
Therapeutic Uses: Anxiety, insomnia, mood regulation, analgesia, potential anticancer
Mechanisms of Action: GABA potentiation, MAO inhibition, ion channel modulation

FIRST AID MEASURES of PIPER METHYSTICUM:
-Description of first-aid measures
*General advice:
Show this material safety data sheet to the doctor in attendance.
*If inhaled:
After inhalation: 
Fresh air.
*In case of skin contact: 
Take off immediately all contaminated clothing. 
Rinse skin with
water/ shower.
*In case of eye contact:
After eye contact: 
Rinse out with plenty of water. 
Call in ophthalmologist. 
Remove contact lenses.
*If swallowed:
After swallowing: 
Immediately make victim drink water (two glasses at most). 
Consult a physician.
-Indication of any immediate medical attention and special treatment needed.
No data available

ACCIDENTAL RELEASE MEASURES of PIPER METHYSTICUM:
-Environmental precautions:
Do not let product enter drains.
-Methods and materials for containment and cleaning up:
Cover drains. 
Collect, bind, and pump off spills. 
Observe possible material restrictions. 
Take up dry. 
Dispose of properly. 
Clean up affected area.

FIRE FIGHTING MEASURES of PIPER METHYSTICUM:
-Extinguishing media:
*Suitable extinguishing media:
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 
Foam 
Dry powder
*Unsuitable extinguishing media:
For this substance/mixture no limitations of extinguishing agents are given.
-Further information:
Prevent fire extinguishing water from contaminating surface water or the ground water system.

EXPOSURE CONTROLS/PERSONAL PROTECTION of PIPER METHYSTICUM:
-Control parameters:
--Ingredients with workplace control parameters:
-Exposure controls:
--Personal protective equipment:
*Eye/face protection:
Use equipment for eye protection. 
Safety glasses
*Body Protection:
protective clothing
*Respiratory protection:
Recommended Filter type: Filter A 
-Control of environmental exposure:
Do not let product enter drains.

HANDLING and STORAGE of PIPER METHYSTICUM:
-Conditions for safe storage, including any incompatibilities:
*Storage conditions:
Tightly closed. 
Dry.

STABILITY and REACTIVITY of PIPER METHYSTICUM:
-Chemical stability:
The product is chemically stable under standard ambient conditions (room temperature).
-Possibility of hazardous reactions:
No data available