PRODUCTS

SULFURIC ACID

Sulfuric Acid is used to manufacture explosives, other acids, dyes, glue, wood preservatives, and automobile batteries.
Sulfuric Acid is used in the purification of petroleum, the pickling of metal, copper smelting, electroplating, metal work, and the production of rayon and film.
The major use (60% of total production worldwide) for sulfuric acid is in the "wet method" for the production of phosphoric acid, used for manufacture of phosphate fertilizers as well as trisodium phosphate for detergents.

CAS Number: 7664-93-9
EC Number (EINECS): 231-639-5
E number: E513 (acidity regulators, ...)
Molecular Formula: H2O4S / H2SO4
Molar mass: 98.079 g/mol

SYNONYMS:
SULFURIC ACID, Sulphuric acid, 7664-93-9, Dihydrogen sulfate, Dipping acid, Mattling acid, Battery acid, Acide sulfurique, Electrolyte acid, Acidum sulfuricum, Sulphuricum acidum, Schwefelsaeure, tetraoxosulfuric acid, Acido solforico, Acido sulfurico, Brimstone acid, Schwefelsaeureloesungen, H2SO4, Zwavelzuuroplossingen, Dihydrogen sulphate, Anhydrous sulfuric acid, DTXSID5029683, Nordhausen acid, Matting acid, O40UQP6WCF, NSC-38965, EPA Pesticide Chemical Code 078001, NSC-248648, INS NO.513, CHEBI:26836, INS-513, DTXCID709683, E-513, NSC38965, NSC248648, (S(OH)2O2), [S(OH)2O2], Sulfuric acid (aqueous), sulfur acid, Colds Flu, Acidum Sulphuricum, Oriental Medicine Detox, RefChem:6694, 231-639-5, Sulfur oxide (SO4), Sulfuric acid [NF], MFCD00064589, H2O4S, 12772-98-4, BOV, Sulfuric acid (NF), sulfuricacid, E513, Sulfuric Acid, ACS Grade, Caswell No. 815, H2 (S O4), Acide sulfurique [French], Acido solforico [Italian], Acido sulfurico [Spanish], Zwavelzuuroplossingen [Dutch], Sulfuric acid, spent, Sulfuric acid, ACS reagent, 95.0-98.0%, Schwefelsaeureloesungen [German], HSDB 1811, EINECS 231-639-5, UNII-O40UQP6WCF, UN1830, UN1832, Opsonat, suiphuric acid, sulfuric aicd, sulfuric-acid, suIfuric acid, sulphur-ic acid, -sulfuric acid, G-sulfuric acid, Retinol Impurity A, UN2796, Sulfuric acid 30%, Sulfuric acid 36%, Sulfuric acid 50%, 4.1M Sulfuric acid, dihydroxidodioxidosulfur, 0.5M Sulphuric acid, Sulfuric acid, 60%, Sulphuric acid, dilute, Sulfuric Acid, 96%, Sulfuric Acid, 98%, 0.05M Sulphuric acid, dihydrogen tetraoxosulfate, Sulfuric acid [Strong inorganic acid mists containing sulfuric acid], SCHEMBL113, EC 231-639-5, SCHEMBL2131, SULFURIC ACID [II], SULFURIC ACID [MI], Sulfuric acid, 95-99%, hydrogen tetraoxosulfate(VI), NCIOpen2_006177, SULFURIC ACID [FCC], hydrogen tetraoxosulfate(2-), Sulfuric Acid(96%, w/w), Sulfuric acid, 99.999%, UN 1830 (Salt/Mix), UN 1832 (Salt/Mix), UN 2796 (Salt/Mix), SULFURIC ACID [VANDF], SULFURIC ACID [MART.], CHEMBL572964, O2S(OH)2, SCHEMBL1628189, Sulfuric acid contained in strong inorganic acid mists, Sulfuric acid with >51% acid, Sulfuric acid, AR, >=98%, Sulfuric acid, LR, >=98%, SULFURIC ACID [WHO-DD], H2 S O4, SULPHURICUM ACIDUM [HPUS], [SO2(OH)2], Sulfuric acid, 90.0-91.0%, Sulfuric acid, 95.0-97.0%, Sulfuric acid with not >51% acid, SULFURIC ACID [EP IMPURITY], Sulfuric acid, p.a., 93-98%, Tox21_200483, BDBM50194240, BDBM50499186, SULFURIC ACID [EP MONOGRAPH], Sulfuric acid, extra pure, 95.5%, 2M Sulfuric acid (+/- 0.1 M), 7M Sulfuric acid (+/- 0.3 M), Methanolic sulfuric acid 10% (v/v), Sulfuric acid, technical grade, 95%, CCG-221344, DB11309, NCGC00248653-01, NCGC00258037-01, IR178839, sulfuric acid (acid aerosols including mists, vapors, gas, fog and other airborne forms of any particle size), CAS-7664-93-9, DS-002649, NS00007262, Q4118, Sulfuric acid, purum p.a., 95-97% (T), Sulfuric acid, SAJ first grade, >=95.0%, Sulfuric acid, Environmental Grade, 93-98%, Sulfuric acid, JIS special grade, >=95.0%, C00059, D05963, Sulfuric acid, puriss. p.a., 95-97% (T), Sulfuric acid, spent [UN1832] [Corrosive], Sulfuric acid, puriss. p.a. plus, >=95% (T), Sulfuric acid (1+1), ~64.0 % (w/w) in H2O, Sulfuric acid (1+2), ~47.0 % (w/w) in H2O, Sulfuric acid, >=97.0%, SAJ super special grade, Q27110052, Sulfuric acid, 99.9999% (metals basis), 92% min, Sulfuric acid with >51% acid [UN1830] [Corrosive], USP Solution Sulfuric Acid 1.00 Normal Conforms to USP, 7370A083-F259-4C3E-A455-B5FA1E3C8CB7, Sulfuric acid with not >51% acid [UN2796] [Corrosive], Sulfuric acid, for the determination of nitrogen, >=97.5%, Sulphuric acid 37% techn. (battery acid, accumul. acid), Sulfuric acid, puriss. p.a., ACS reagent, 95.0-98.0% (T), Methanolic H2SO4, 10 % (v/v) in methanol, for GC derivatization, Sulfuric acid, >=97.0%, suitable for determination of toxic metals, 0.2N H2SO4 Distillation Fluid, 50 x 10 mL, smart delivery PFA Tube, Sulfuric acid, puriss., meets analytical specification of Ph. Eur., BP, 95-97%, Sulfuric acid, semiconductor grade PURANAL(TM) (Honeywell 17831), 95-97%, Sulfuric acid, semiconductor grade VLSI PURANAL(TM) (Honeywell 17611), 95-97%, Sulfuric acid, Volumetric Standard Solution, final concentration 1N = 0.5M (Ampoule), Zinc(2+),1',1'',1'''-(1,2-ethanediyldinitrilo)tetrakis[2-propanol]]-, sulfate (1:1), Sulfuric acid, puriss. p.a., for determination of Hg, ACS reagent, reag. ISO, reag. Ph. 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Sulfuric acid is the world's largest volume industrial chemical.
Sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) is a hydrogen ion (H⁺) donor compound belonging to the mineral class, composed of two hydrogen atoms, one sulfur atom, and four oxygen atoms.
Sulfuric Acid is a dense, oily liquid that ranges in color from colorless to pale yellow.

Due to its widespread use in industrial production, Sulfuric Acid is among the fundamental substances of industry.
Historically, Sulfuric Acid has also been known as “oil of vitriol.”
Annual production volume of Sulfuric Acid is a significant indicator of a country’s chemical industry capacity.

Sulfuric Acid does not occur freely in nature; however, trace amounts can be detected in some volcanic gases.
Sulfuric Acid's industrial production is primarily carried out via the contact process.
Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is a strong acid with hygroscopic and oxidizing properties.

Sulfuric Acid is a mineral acid with the chemical formula H2SO4.
Sulfuric acid is also known as Mattling acid or Oil of vitriol.
Sulfuric Acid has a strong acidic nature and is corrosive.

At higher concentrations, it acts as an oxidizing agent and dehydrating agent.
Sulfuric Acid is a syrupy liquid which is odourless and has no colour.
Sulfuric Acid is water-soluble and releases heat when dissolved in water.

Anhydrous sulfuric acid has a dielectric constant of around 100 and is a very polar liquid.
Sulfuric Acid is perhaps the most important heavy industrial chemical, with large-scale uses in a wide range of industries.
Sulfuric acid is a very strong acid; in aqueous solutions, it ionizes completely to form hydronium ions (H3O+) and hydrogen sulfate ions (HSO4−).

Hydrogen sulfate ions further ionise in very dilute solutions to give sulphate ions (SO42-).
Sulfuric acid is a colorless oily liquid.
Sulfuric Acid is soluble in water with release of heat.

Sulfuric Acid is corrosive to metals and tissue.
Sulfuric Acid will char wood and most other organic matter on contact, but is unlikely to cause a fire.
Density of Sulfuric Acid is 15 lb / gal.

Sulfuric Acid is a clear, colourless, or brown oily liquid that is highly corrosive.
Sulfuric Acid is a very important chemical worldwide.
Sulfuric Acid, H2SO4, is a strong mineral acid.

Sulfuric Acid is soluble in water at all concentrations.
Sulfuric Acid was once known as oil of vitriol, coined by the 8th-century Muslim alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber) after his discovery of the chemical.
Many proteins are made of sulfur-containing amino acids (such as cysteine and methionine) which produce sulfuric acid when metabolized by the body.

Spent sulfuric acid appears as a black, oily liquid.
Sulfuric acid is a sulfur oxoacid that consists of two oxo and two hydroxy groups joined covalently to a central sulfur atom.
Sulfuric Acid has a role as a catalyst.

Sulfuric Acid is a conjugate acid of a hydrogensulfate.
Sulfuric acid is a strong mineral acid with the molecular formula H2SO4.
Sulfuric Acid is a pungent-ethereal, colorless to slightly yellow viscous liquid which is soluble in water at all concentrations.

Sometimes, Sulfuric Acid is dyed dark brown during production to alert people to its hazards.
The historical name of Sulfuric Acid is oil of vitriol.
Concentrated sulfuric acid is 98% pure and shows different properties depending upon its concentration.

For instance battery acid is 30% sulfuric acid.
Because the hydration reaction of sulfuric acid is highly exothermic, dilution should always be performed by adding the acid to the water rather than the water to the acid.
Pure sulfuric acid is not encountered naturally on Earth in its anhydrous form, due to its great affinity for water.

Dilute sulfuric acid is a constituent of acid rain, which is formed by atmospheric oxidation of sulfur dioxide in the presence of water – i.e., oxidation of sulfurous acid.
Sulfur dioxide is the main byproduct produced when sulfur-containing fuels such as coal or oil are burned.
Sulfuric acid (American spelling and the preferred IUPAC name) or sulphuric acid (Commonwealth spelling), known in antiquity as oil of vitriol, is a mineral acid composed of the elements sulfur, oxygen, and hydrogen, with the molecular formula H2SO4.

Sulfuric Acid is a colorless, odorless, and viscous liquid that is miscible with water.
Pure sulfuric acid does not occur naturally due to its strong affinity to water vapor; it is hygroscopic and readily absorbs water vapor from the air.
Concentrated sulfuric acid is a strong oxidant with powerful dehydrating properties, making it highly corrosive towards other materials, from rocks to metals.

Phosphorus pentoxide is a notable exception in that it is not dehydrated by sulfuric acid but, to the contrary, dehydrates sulfuric acid to sulfur trioxide.
Upon addition of sulfuric acid to water, a considerable amount of heat is released; thus, the reverse procedure of adding water to the acid is generally avoided since the heat released may boil the solution, spraying droplets of hot acid during the process.

Many methods for its production are known, including the contact process, the wet sulfuric acid process, and the lead chamber process.
Sulfuric acid is also a key substance in the chemical industry.
Sulfuric acid can be obtained by dissolving sulfur trioxide in water.

Sulfuric acid is a dense, oily liquid that is one of the most widely used industrial chemicals.
In its concentrated form (95–97%), Sulfuric Acid serves as a strong mineral acid with high reactivity.
Sulfuric Acid is employed in a vast range of applications from chemical synthesis and fertilizer production to petroleum refining and pH adjustment.

Chemically, sulfuric acid is a sulfur oxoacid that consists of two oxo and two hydroxy groups covalently bonded to a central sulfur atom.
Sulfuric Acid also functions as a powerful dehydrating agent and catalyst.
Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is the most-produced chemical globally, with an annual market size of ≈300 million tonnes (≈333 million US tons).

The market size of Sulfuric Acid is expected to grow to ≈364 million tonnes by 2030.
Sulfuric Acid has been known for at least two millennia, typically by the names “vitriol” or “oil of vitriol”.
Sulfuric Acid was widely used by alchemists in medieval times.

USES and APPLICATIONS of SULFURIC ACID:
The main use of Sulfuric Acid is in the production of phosphate fertilizers.
Sulfuric Acid is used to manufacture explosives, other acids, dyes, glue, wood preservatives, and automobile batteries.
Sulfuric Acid is used in the purification of petroleum, the pickling of metal, copper smelting, electroplating, metal work, and the production of rayon and film.

Sulfuric acid is a very important commodity chemical, and a nation's sulfuric acid production was as recently as 2002 believed to be a good indicator of its industrial strength.
World production of Sulfuric Acid in the year 2004 was about 180 million tonnes, with the following geographic distribution: Asia 35%, North America (including Mexico) 24%, Africa 11%, Western Europe 10%, Eastern Europe and Russia 10%, Australia and Oceania 7%, South America 7%.
World production in 2022 was estimated at 260 million tonnes.

As of the late 20th century, most of the produced amount of Sulfuric Acid (≈60%) was consumed for fertilizers, particularly superphosphates, ammonium phosphate and ammonium sulfates.
About 20% of Sulfuric Acid is used in chemical industry for production of detergents, synthetic resins, dyestuffs, pharmaceuticals, petroleum catalysts, insecticides and antifreeze, as well as in various processes such as oil well acidicizing, aluminium reduction, paper sizing, and water treatment.

About 6% of uses of Sulfuric Acid are related to pigments and include paints, enamels, printing inks, coated fabrics and paper, while the rest is dispersed into a multitude of applications such as production of explosives, cellophane, acetate and viscose textiles, lubricants, non-ferrous metals, and batteries.
Sulfuric acid is a very important commodity chemical, and indeed, a nation's sulfuric acid production is a good indicator of its industrial strength.

The major use (60% of total production worldwide) for sulfuric acid is in the "wet method" for the production of phosphoric acid, used for manufacture of phosphate fertilizers as well as trisodium phosphate for detergents.
In this method, phosphate rock is used, and more than 100 million tonnes are processed annually.

This raw material is shown below as fluorapatite, though the exact composition may vary.
This is treated with 93% sulfuric acid to produce calcium sulfate, hydrogen fluoride (HF) and phosphoric acid.
The HF is removed as hydrofluoric acid.

The overall process can be represented as:
Ca5F(PO4)3 + 5 H2SO4 + 10 H2O → 5 CaSO4•2 H2O + HF + 3 H3PO4.
Sulfuric acid is used in large quantities by the iron and steelmaking industry to remove oxidation, rust and scale from rolled sheet and billets prior to sale to the automobile and white-goods industry.

Used Sulfuric Acid is often recycled using a Spent Acid Regeneration (SAR) plant.
These plants combust spent acid with natural gas, refinery gas, fuel oil or other fuel sources.
This combustion process produces gaseous sulfur dioxide (SO2) and sulfur trioxide (SO3) which are then used to manufacture "new" sulfuric acid.

SAR plants are common additions to metal smelting plants, oil refineries, and other industries where sulfuric acid is consumed in bulk, as operating a SAR plant is much cheaper than the recurring costs of spent acid disposal and new acid purchases.
Ammonium sulfate, an important nitrogen fertilizer, is most commonly produced as a byproduct from coking plants supplying the iron and steel making plants.

Reacting the ammonia produced in the thermal decomposition of coal with waste sulfuric acid allows the ammonia to be crystallized out as a salt (often brown because of iron contamination) and sold into the agro-chemicals industry.
Another important use for sulfuric acid is for the manufacture of aluminum sulfate, also known as paper maker's alum.

This can react with small amounts of soap on paper pulp fibers to give gelatinous aluminum carboxylates, which help to coagulate the pulp fibers into a hard paper surface.
Sulfuric Acid is also used for making aluminum hydroxide, which is used at water treatment plants to filter out impurities, as well as to improve the taste of the water.
Aluminum sulfate is made by reacting bauxite with sulfuric acid:
Al2O3 + 3 H2SO4 → Al2(SO4)3 + 3 H2O.

Sulfuric acid is used for a variety of other purposes in the chemical industry.
For example, Sulfuric Acid is the usual acid catalyst for the conversion of cyclohexanoneoxime to caprolactam, used for making nylon.
Sulfuric Acid is used for making hydrochloric acid from salt via the Mannheim process.

Much H2SO4 is used in petroleum refining, for example as a catalyst for the reaction of isobutane with isobutylene to give isooctane, a compound that raises the octane rating of gasoline (petrol).
Sulfuric acid is also important in the manufacture of dyestuffs solutions and is the "acid" in lead-acid (car) batteries.

Sulfuric acid is also used as a general dehydrating agent in its concentrated form.
Sulfuric acid is used in almost all industrial sectors.
Typical areas of application are in the production of fertilizers and pigments as well as metal ore leaching.

In addition, sulfuric acid is used extensively in the chemical industry, whether in fiber production, hydrofluoric acid production, chlorine drying or one of many other applications.
Application of Sulfuric Acid: Synthetic fiber raw material, Dye, Fertilizer, Metal refining, Steel making.
Sulfuric acid has many applications, and is one of the top products of the chemical industry.

World production of Sulfuric Acid in 2001 was 165 million tonnes, with an approximate value of US$8 billion.
Principal uses of Sulfuric Acid include ore processing, fertilizer manufacturing, oil refining, wastewater processing, and chemical synthesis.
Fertilizer Industry: Sulfuric acid is a key reactant in the production of phosphate fertilizers.

Treating phosphate rock with sulfuric acid yields widely used agricultural fertilizers such as superphosphate.
Sulfuric Acid is used in making fertilizers
Sulfuric Acid is used in the production of steel and iron

Sulfuric Acid is used in chemical manufacturing industries
Sulfuric Acid is used in petroleum refining
Sulfuric Acid is used to produce phosphoric acid

Sulfuric Acid used as a cleaning agent in industries to remove the rust from steel and iron
Sulfuric Acid is used as a catalyst to convert cyclohexanone oxime to caprolactam used to make nylon
Sulfuric Acid is used in lead-acid batteries as an electrolyte

Sulfuric Acid is used in making ammonium sulfate
Sulfuric Acid is used in storage batteries
Uses / Applications of Sulfuric Acid: Fertilizer production (phosphates, ammonium sulfate), Petroleum refining, Lead-acid batteries, Chemical synthesis (detergents, dyes, explosives), Metal processing (pickling steel), Water treatment, and Laboratory reagent.

Sulfuric Acid is widely used in the manufacturing of fertilizers.
Sulfuric Acid is also used in chemical synthesis and wastewater processes.
The largest use of Sulfuric Acid is in the production of phosphate fertilisers.

Sulfuric Acidhas other uses, in the petrochemical processes, to control the acidity of foods, oil refining, metal extraction and processing, to make hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids and to produce other industrial chemicals.
Sulfuric Acid is also used to harvest potatoes; the acid damages the leaves killing the plant and making it easier to lift the potatoes from the ground.

Sulfuric Acid may also be used to make plasticisers, dyestuffs, rubber, explosives, silicate for toothpaste, adhesives, detergents, pharmaceuticals, edible oils, lubricants, and food acids such as citric or lactic acid.
Sulfuric Acid is also used in lead-acid car batteries and some commercially available solutions for unblocking drains.

Sulfuric acid is one of the most important compounds made by the chemical industry.
Sulfuric Acid is used to make, literally, hundreds of compounds needed by almost every industry.
By far the largest amount of sulfuric acid is used to make phosphoric acid, used, in turn, to make the phosphate fertilizers, calcium dihydrogenphosphate and the ammonium phosphates.

Sulfuric Acid is also used to make ammonium sulfate, which is a particularly important fertilizer in sulfur-deficient.
Sulfuric Acid is widely used in metal processing for example in the manufacture of copper and the manufacture of zinc and in cleaning the surface of steel sheet, known as 'pickling', prior to it being covered in a thin layer of tin, used to make cans for food.

Sulfuric Acid is also used to make caprolactam, which is converted into polyamide 6 and in the manufacture of titanium dioxide, used, for example, as a pigment.
Amongst Sulfuric Acid's many other uses is in the manufacture of hydrofluoric acid and phenol with propanone all of which are used in many industries.
Sulfuric Acid is used to make fertilizers and other chemicals, in petroleum refining, in iron and steel production, and for many other uses.

Most sulfuric acid (~60%) is consumed for fertilizers, particularly superphosphates, ammonium phosphate and ammonium sulfates.
About 20% is used in chemical industry for production of detergents, synthetic resins, dyestuffs, pharmaceuticals, petroleum catalysts, insecticides and antifreeze, as well as in various processes such as oil well acidicizing, aluminium reduction, paper sizing, water treatment.

Sulfuric Acid is most commonly used in fertilizer manufacture but is also important in mineral processing, oil refining, wastewater treating, and chemical synthesis.
Sulfuric Acid has a wide range of end applications, including in domestic acidic drain cleaners, as an electrolyte in lead-acid batteries, as a dehydrating compound, and in various cleaning agents.

Sulfuric Acid has a wide range of uses.
Most of Sulfuric Acid (≈60%) is consumed in extracting phosphoric acid from apatites (phosphate rocks) for fertilizer use.
Other industrial applications of Sulfuric Acid are in petroleum refining, cleaning agents, and chemical manufacturing.
And of course, Sulfuric Acid is a staple in many laboratory procedures.

-Chemical Industry uses of Sulfuric Acid:
Sulfuric Acid is used as an intermediate in the production of dyes, synthetic detergents, explosives, pharmaceuticals, and artificial fibers.
Sulfuric Acid also serves in diverse applications such as metal surface cleaning, petroleum refining, and electrolyte production.
Sulfuric Acid's role as an electrolyte in lead-acid batteries has secured its place in the energy sector.

-Laboratory and Industrial Cleaning uses of Sulfuric Acid:
In laboratory settings, Sulfuric Acid functions as a desiccant and reaction initiator.
In industry, Sulfuric Acid is used as a solvent for grease, dirt, and rust.
Sulfuric Acid is particularly preferred for preparing metal surfaces prior to processing.

-Sulfuric Acid is used in industrial production of chemicals
The dominant use for sulfuric acid is in the "wet method" for the production of phosphoric acid, used for manufacture of phosphate fertilizers.
In this method, phosphate rock is used, and more than 100 million tonnes are processed annually.

The overall process can be represented as:
Ca5(PO4)3F fluorapatite+5H2SO4+10H2O⟶5CaSO4⋅2H2O calcium sulfate dihydrate+HF+3H3PO4
Ammonium sulfate, an important nitrogen fertilizer, is most commonly produced as a byproduct from coking plants supplying the iron and steel making plants.

Reacting the ammonia produced in the thermal decomposition of coal with waste sulfuric acid allows the ammonia to be crystallized out as a salt (often brown because of iron contamination) and sold into the agro-chemicals industry.
Sulfuric acid is also important in the manufacture of dyestuffs solutions.

-Sulfuric Acid is used as an industrial cleaning agent:
Sulfuric acid is used in steelmaking and other metallurgical industries as a pickling agent for removal of rust and fouling.
Used Sulfuric Acid is often recycled using a spent acid regeneration (SAR) plant.
These plants combust spent Sulfuric Acid with natural gas, refinery gas, fuel oil or other fuel sources.

This combustion process produces gaseous sulfur dioxide (SO2) and sulfur trioxide (SO3) which are then used to manufacture "new" sulfuric acid.
Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) can be added to sulfuric acid to produce piranha solution, a powerful but potentially hazardous cleaning solution with which substrate surfaces can be cleaned.
Piranha solution is typically used in the microelectronics industry, and also in laboratory settings to clean glassware.

-Catalyst uses of Sulfuric Acid:
Sulfuric acid is used for a variety of other purposes in the chemical industry.
For example, Sulfuric Acid is the usual acid catalyst for the conversion of cyclohexanone oxime to caprolactam, used for making nylon.

Sulfuric Acid is used for making hydrochloric acid from salt via the Mannheim process.
Much Sulfuric Acid is used in petroleum refining, for example as a catalyst for the reaction of isobutane with isobutylene to give isooctane, a compound that raises the octane rating of gasoline (petrol).
Sulfuric acid is also often used as a dehydrating or oxidizing agent in industrial reactions, such as the dehydration of various sugars to form solid carbon.

-Electrolyte uses of Sulfuric Acid:
Sulfuric acid acts as the electrolyte in lead–acid batteries (lead-acid accumulator):
At anode:
Pb + SO2−4 ⇌ PbSO4 + 2 e−

At cathode:
PbO2 + 4 H+ + SO2−4 + 2 e− ⇌ PbSO4 + 2 H2O
Overall:
Pb + PbO2 + 4 H+ + 2 SO2−4 ⇌ 2 PbSO4 + 2 H2O

-Domestic uses of Sulfuric Acid:
Sulfuric acid at high concentrations is frequently the major ingredient in domestic acidic drain cleaners which are used to remove lipids, hair, tissue paper, etc.
Similar to their alkaline versions, such drain openers can dissolve fats and proteins via hydrolysis.
Moreover, as concentrated sulfuric acid has a strong dehydrating property, it can remove tissue paper via dehydrating process as well.
Since the acid may react with water vigorously, such acidic drain openers should be added slowly into the pipe to be cleaned.

HISTORY of SULFURIC ACID:
The history of sulfuric acid has paralleled the earliest systematic chemical experiments in human history.
The first known references to Sulfuric Acid's forms appear in the works of the 8th-century Islamic scholar Jabir ibn Hayyan.

Jabir obtained sulfuric acid derivatives from iron sulfate (FeSO₄), aluminum sulfate (Al₂(SO₄)₃), and natural vitriol minerals, naming these substances “oil of vitriol.”
This terminology continued to be used in subsequent periods.

In the 13th century, Albertus Magnus and Roger Bacon obtained acidic solutions by distilling vitriol compounds and helped popularize this process in Europe.
In the 16th century, Johann Rudolf Glauber produced sulfuric acid vapor by heating iron and copper sulfates, enabling experiments with purer solutions.

In England in 1746, chemist John Roebuck developed the first commercial-scale sulfuric acid production system, establishing the lead chamber process.
This method relied on the reaction of gases produced by heating iron sulfate and nitrate together inside large lead vessels.

Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, this process became widely used in Europe and America, increasing the demand for sulfuric acid in sectors such as textiles, leather, and metallurgy alongside the Industrial Revolution.

However, the lead chamber process eventually became inadequate due to low efficiency and limited concentration output.
In 1831, British chemist Peregrine Phillips developed the more efficient contact process.

In this method, sulfur dioxide (SO₂) reacts with oxygen in the presence of vanadium(V) oxide (V₂O₅) as a catalyst to produce sulfur trioxide (SO₃).
This advancement made large-scale, economical, and continuous production of sulfuric acid possible.

Throughout the 20th century, the process was refined to improve efficiency, reduce environmental impact, and enhance control through automation systems.
Today, sulfuric acid production is widespread in nearly every country, and its output is often regarded as an indicator of a nation’s chemical industry capacity.

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES of SULFURIC ACID:
Sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) is a colorless, oily, heavy, and odorless liquid at room temperature.
Due to its strong hygroscopic nature, Sulfuric Acid rapidly absorbs water vapor from humid air and can become concentrated.
Sulfuric Acid also has high viscosity.

The density of pure sulfuric acid is approximately 1.84 g/cm³, which is considerably higher than that of ordinary liquids.
With a molecular weight of 98.08 g/mol, Sulfuric Acid consists of two hydrogen atoms, one sulfur atom, and four oxygen atoms, as indicated by its chemical formula.

The melting point of pure sulfuric acid is approximately 10.3 °C, and its boiling point is 337 °C.
During boiling, Sulfuric Acid partially decomposes, releasing sulfur trioxide (SO₃) and water vapor.

Sulfuric acid is classified as a strong acid due to its proton-donating ability.
In aqueous solutions, Sulfuric Acid undergoes two-stage ionization.

Sulfuric Acid completely donates its first proton, while the second proton dissociation occurs via an equilibrium reaction.
This characteristic classifies Sulfuric Acid as a diprotic acid.

Thermodynamically quite stable, Sulfuric Acid₄ exhibits a tendency to decompose at high temperatures but has a high potential to react in many environments.
As a strong dehydrating agent, Sulfuric Acid can remove water from organic substances.
Consequently, when Sulfuric Acid comes into contact with carbohydrates (e.g., sucrose), carbonization occurs, separating the substance into water and carbon.

Additionally, sulfuric acid reacts with many metals to produce hydrogen gas.
In such reactions, Sulfuric Acid exhibits redox properties.
For example, Sulfuric Acid's reaction with zinc (Zn).

Concentrated sulfuric acid can also act as an oxidizing agent.
Especially when hot and concentrated, Sulfuric Acid reacts with metals such as copper (Cu) and silver (Ag) to form sulfate salts, releasing SO₂ gas.
Considering all these properties, sulfuric acid is one of the fundamental inorganic compounds widely preferred in industry due to both its physical stability and chemical reactivity.

RELATED COMPOUNDS of SULFURIC ACID:
-Related strong acids
*Selenic acid
*Hydrochloric acid
*Nitric acid
*Perchloric acid
*Fluoroantimonic acid
*Chromic acid

-Related compounds
*Sulfurous acid
*Peroxymonosulfuric acid
*Sulfur trioxide
*Oleum

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES of SULFURIC ACID:
Sulfuric acid is very reactive and corrosive.
Sulfuric Acid is soluble in water and ethyl alcohol.
sulfuric acid (H2SO4), colorless, odorless, oily, and corrosive liquid that is a widely manufactured industrial chemical.
A key raw material for making fertilizers and many other chemical products, Sulfuric Acid is produced in large quantities and used in petroleum refining, metal processing, and chemical manufacturing.

MANUFACTURE of SULFURIC ACID:
Contact process
Sulfuric acid is produced from sulfur, oxygen and water via the contact process.
In the first step, sulfur is burned to produce sulfur dioxide.

(1) S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(g)
This is then oxidised to sulfur trioxide using oxygen in the presence of a vanadium(V) oxide catalyst.

(2) 2 SO2 + O2(g) → 2 SO3(g) (in presence of V2O5)
Finally the sulfur trioxide is treated with water (usually as 97-98% H2SO4 containing 2-3% water) to produce 98-99% sulfuric acid.

(3) SO3(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO4(l)
Note that directly dissolving SO3 in water is not practical due to the highly exothermic nature of the reaction, forming a corrosive mist instead of a liquid.
Alternatively, SO3 can be absorbed into H2SO4 to produce oleum (H2S2O7), which may then be mixed with water to form sulfuric acid.

(3) H2SO4(l) + SO3 → H2S2O7(l)
Oleum is reacted with water to form concentrated H2SO4.

(4) H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l) → 2 H2SO4(l)

PRODUCTION PROCESS of SULFURIC ACID:
Today, sulfuric acid production is primarily carried out via the three-stage contact process.
In the first stage, sulfur (S) is burned in oxygen or sulfur-containing ores are roasted to produce sulfur dioxide (SO₂) gas.
In the second stage, SO₂ gas reacts with oxygen over catalyst beds containing vanadium pentoxide (V₂O₅) to convert into sulfur trioxide (SO₃).

In the final stage, the produced SO₃ does not react directly with water but instead reacts with a pre-prepared sulfuric acid solution to form oleum (H₂S₂O₇).
The oleum is then diluted with water to obtain sulfuric acid at the desired concentration.
This method is preferred due to factors such as efficiency, safety, and environmental sustainability.

HISTORY of SULFURIC ACID:
The origin of sulfuric acid is uncertain, but references to its preparation appear before the 10th century.
In the late 15th century German alchemist Basil Valentine described methods of obtaining the acid, including burning sulfur with saltpeter (potassium nitrate) and distilling Sulfuric Acid from a mixture of silica and ferric sulfate, then called vitriol—an association that gave rise to the long-used name oil of vitriol.
Until the 18th century, production was small in scale and limited mainly to the preparation of nitric and hydrochloric acids for assaying and treating nonferrous metals.

Large-scale manufacture began in 1746, when English physician John Roebuck developed the lead-chamber process, in which gases from burning sulfur were absorbed in water within lead-lined chambers.
This method enabled output far greater than that possible with earlier clay or glass vessels.

The soda ash production process introduced by the French chemist Nicolas Leblanc in 1790 further spurred demand.
Although his first factory failed amid the turmoil of the French Revolution, the process was more widely adopted after 1807.
Because the first step of Leblanc’s process required sulfuric acid, which was difficult to transport, alkali producers usually built their own acid plants.

MANUFACTURING PROCESS of SULFURIC ACID:
Sulfuric Acid's first crude manufacturing process, in the 16th century, consisted of burning sulfur in the presence of water.
This method converted barely 1% of the sulfur to Sulfuric Acid; most of the sulfur was oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2).
A century later, this process was improved by adding nitrate salts to the water.
Another improvement came in 1746 with the lead chamber process, which used nitric oxide (NO) to boost the yield and large lead-lined reactors instead of glass vessels to increase production.

The reaction sequence was
2NO + O2 → NO2
NO2 + SO2 + H2O → H2SO4 + NO

The most efficient process, and the one used today, was invented in 1831 by Peregrine Phillips, Jr., of Bristol, UK.
Called the contact process, Sulfuric Acid consists of burning sulfur to SO2, which is catalytically oxidized to sulfur trioxide (SO3).
The SO3 is then added to water to produce concentrated H2SO4.

The reaction sequence starting from SO2 is
SO2 + O2 → SO3
SO3 + H2O → H2SO4

The original catalyst was platinum, but this was later changed to the less expensive and more durable vanadium pentoxide (V2O5).
Commercial concentrated Sulfuric Acid contains 98 wt% acid; the remainder is water.
Pure Sulfuric Acid gives off SO3, making it hazardous to work with.
The concentrated acid also must be handled with care because of its corrosive properties.

KEY INDUSTRIES of SULFURIC ACID:
Chemical Manufacturing – Sulfuric Acid is used in the production of hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, and sulfate salts
Fertilizer Industry – Sulfuric Acid is essential in the production of phosphate fertilizers

Petroleum Refining – Sulfuric Acid is used for alkylation and purification processes
Mining & Metal Processing – Sulfuric Acid is applied in ore leaching and metal surface treatment
Pharmaceutical Manufacturing – Sulfuric Acid is utilized in synthesis and purification steps

Battery Production – Core component in lead-acid batteries
Water Treatment – Sulfuric Acid is used for pH adjustment and flocculation support
Textiles – Sulfuric Acid is employed in dyeing and finishing operations

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES of SULFURIC ACID:
Strong Acid Behavior
Fully ionizes in water (diprotic acid):
H₂SO₄ → H⁺ + HSO₄⁻
HSO₄⁻ ⇌ H⁺ + SO₄²⁻

Dehydrating Agent
Removes water from compounds (especially organic substances)
Example: charring of sugar (carbon formation)

Oxidizing Agent (Concentrated H₂SO₄)
Acts as an oxidizing agent, especially when hot and concentrated
Example reaction with copper:
Cu + 2H₂SO₄ → CuSO₄ + SO₂ + 2H₂O

Reacts with Metals
Dilute acid reacts with active metals → hydrogen gas:
Zn + H₂SO₄ → ZnSO₄ + H₂↑
Concentrated acid may produce SO₂ instead of H₂

Reacts with Bases (Neutralization)
Forms salts (sulfates) and water:
H₂SO₄ + 2NaOH → Na₂SO₄ + 2H₂O

Reacts with Metal Oxides
Produces salt + water:
CuO + H₂SO₄ → CuSO₄ + H₂O

Reacts with Carbonates/Bicarbonates
Produces CO₂ gas:
Na₂CO₃ + H₂SO₄ → Na₂SO₄ + CO₂ + H₂O

Formation of Sulfates
Forms a wide range of sulfate salts (e.g., Na₂SO₄, CaSO₄)
Decomposition (at high temperature)
Breaks down into:
SO₃ + H₂O

Esterification Reactions
Reacts with alcohols to form esters (important in organic chemistry)

CHARACTERISTICS of SULFURIC ACID:
*Strong electrolyte
*Highly corrosive
*Non-flammable but reacts violently with water
*High affinity for water (desiccant)
*Sulfuric Acid can carbonize organic materials
*Stable under normal conditions but reactive when heated

BENEFITS / IMPORTANCE of SULFURIC ACID:
*Essential industrial chemical (indicator of industrial development)
*Sulfuric Acid enables large-scale fertilizer production → supports agriculture
*Key reagent in many chemical processes
*Cost-effective and widely available
*High efficiency in dehydration and catalysis

HISTORY of SULFURIC ACID:
The discovery of sulfuric acid is credited to the 8th century Arabian chemist and alchemist, Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber).
Sulfuric Acid was later studied by 9th century Persian physician and alchemist Ibn Zakariya al-Razi (Rhazes), who obtained the substance by dry distillation of minerals including iron(II) sulfate heptahydrate, FeSO4 • 7H2O, and copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate, CuSO4 • 5H2O.

When heated, these compounds decompose to iron(II) oxide and copper(II) oxide, respectively, giving off water and sulfur trioxide, which combine to produce a dilute solution of sulfuric acid.
This method was popularized in Europe through translations of Arabic and Persian treatises, as well as books by European alchemists, such as the 13th-century German Albertus Magnus.

Sulfuric acid was known to medieval European alchemists as oil of vitriol, spirit of vitriol, or simply vitriol, among other names.
The word vitriol derives from the Latin vitreus, 'glass', referring to the glassy appearance of the sulfate salts, which also carried the name vitriol.

Salts called by this name included copper(II) sulfate (blue vitriol, or rarely Roman vitriol), zinc sulfate (white vitriol), iron(II) sulfate (green vitriol), iron(III) sulfate (vitriol of Mars), and cobalt(II) sulfate (red vitriol).
Sulfuric Acid was widely considered the most important alchemical substance, intended to be used as a philosopher's stone.

Highly purified Sulfuric Acid was used as a medium for reacting other substances.
This was largely because Sulfuric Acid does not react with gold, production of which was often the final goal of alchemical processes.

The importance of vitriol to alchemy is highlighted in the alchemical motto, Visita Interiora Terrae Rectificando Invenies Occultum Lapidem which is a backronym meaning ('Visit the interior of the earth and rectifying (i.e. purifying) you will find the hidden/secret stone'), found in L'Azoth des Philosophes by the 15th Century alchemist Basilius Valentinus.
In the 17th century, the German-Dutch chemist Johann Glauber prepared sulfuric acid by burning sulfur together with saltpeter (potassium nitrate, KNO3), in the presence of steam.

As saltpeter decomposes, it oxidizes the sulfur to SO3, which combines with water to produce sulfuric acid.
In 1736, Joshua Ward, a London pharmacist, used this method to begin the first large-scale production of sulfuric acid.

In 1746 in Birmingham, John Roebuck adapted this method to produce sulfuric acid in lead-lined chambers, which were stronger, less expensive, and could be made larger than the previously used glass containers.
This lead chamber process allowed the effective industrialization of sulfuric acid production.

After several refinements, this method remained the standard for sulfuric acid production for almost two centuries.
Sulfuric acid created by John Roebuck's process only approached a 35–40% concentration.
Later refinements to the lead-chamber process by French chemist Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac and British chemist John Glover improved the yield to 78%.

However, the manufacture of some dyes and other chemical processes require a more concentrated product.
Throughout the 18th century, this could only be made by dry distilling minerals in a technique similar to the original alchemical processes.
Pyrite (iron disulfide, FeS2) was heated in air to yield iron (II) sulfate, FeSO4, which was oxidized by further heating in air to form iron(III) sulfate, Fe2(SO4)3, which, when heated to 480 °C, decomposed to iron(III) oxide and sulfur trioxide, which could be passed through water to yield sulfuric acid in any concentration.

However, the expense of this process prevented the large-scale use of concentrated sulfuric acid.
In 1831, British vinegar merchant Peregrine Phillips patented the contact process, which was a far more economical process for producing sulfur trioxide and concentrated sulfuric acid.
Today, nearly all of the world's sulfuric acid is produced using this method.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES of SULFURIC ACID:
Forms of sulfuric acid
Although nearly 100% sulfuric acid can be made, this loses SO3 at the boiling point to produce 98.3% acid.
The 98% grade is more stable in storage, and is the usual form of what is described as concentrated sulfuric acid.
Other concentrations are used for different purposes.

Some common concentrations are
*10%, dilute sulfuric acid for laboratory use,
*33.5%, battery acid (used in lead-acid batteries),
*62.18%, chamber or fertilizer acid,
*77.67%, tower or Glover acid,
*98%, concentrated acid.
Different purities are also available.
Technical grade Sulfuric Acid is impure and often colored, but is suitable for making fertilizer.
Pure grades such as US Pharmacopoeia (USP) grade are used for making pharmaceuticals and dyestuffs.

When high concentrations of SO3(g) are added to sulfuric acid, H2S2O7, called pyrosulfuric acid, fuming sulfuric acid or oleum or, less commonly, Nordhausen acid, is formed.
Concentrations of oleum are either expressed in terms of% SO3 (called% oleum) or as% Sulfuric Acid (the amount made if H2O were added); common concentrations are 40% oleum (109% Sulfuric Acid) and 65% oleum (114.6% Sulfuric Acid).
Pure H2S2O7 is a solid with melting point 36°C.

Polarity and conductivity
Anhydrous Sulfuric Acid is a very polar liquid, having a dielectric constant of around 100.
Sulfuric Acid has a high electrical conductivity, caused by dissociation through protonating itself, a process known as autoprotolysis.
2 H2SO4 ⇌ H3SO4+ + HSO4−

The equilibrium constant for the autoprotolysis is
Kap(25°C)= [H3SO4+][HSO4−] = 2.7 × 10−4.
The comparable equilibrium constant for water, Kw is 10−14, a factor of 1010 (10 billion) smaller.

In spite of the viscosity of the acid, the effective conductivities of the H3SO4+ and HSO4− ions are high due to an intra-molecular proton-switch mechanism (analogous to the Grotthuss mechanism in water), making sulfuric acid a good conductor.
Sulfuric Acid is also an excellent solvent for many reactions.

The equilibrium is actually more complex than shown above; 100% Sulfuric Acid contains the following species at equilibrium (figures shown as millimol per kg solvent): HSO4− (15.0), H3SO4+ (11.3), H3O+ (8.0), HS2O7− (4.4), H2S2O7 (3.6), H2O (0.1).

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES of SULFURIC ACID:
Reaction with water
The hydration reaction of sulfuric acid is highly exothermic.
If water is added to the concentrated sulfuric acid, it can boil and spit dangerously.
One should always add Sulfuric Acid to the water rather than the water to the acid.

This can be remembered through mnemonics such as: "Always do things as you oughta, add Sulfuric Acid to the water.
If you think your life's too placid, add the water to the acid", "A.A.: Add Acid", or "Drop acid, not water", or "Acid to water, like A&W Root Beer" or "Put the king into the water, not the water into the king" .

The necessity for this safety precaution is due to the relative densities of these two liquids.
Water is less dense than sulfuric acid, meaning water will tend to float on top of this acid.
The reaction is best thought of as forming hydronium ions, by

H2SO4 + H2O → H3O+ + HSO4−,
and then
HSO4− + H2O → H3O+ + SO42−.

Because the hydration of sulfuric acid is thermodynamically favorable, sulfuric acid is an excellent dehydrating agent, and is used to prepare many dried fruits.
The affinity of sulfuric acid for water is sufficiently strong that it will remove hydrogen and oxygen atoms from other compounds; for example, mixing starch (C6H12O6)n and concentrated sulfuric acid will give elemental carbon and water which is absorbed by the sulfuric acid (which becomes slightly diluted): (C6H12O6)n → 6C + 6H2O.

The effect of this can be seen when concentrated sulfuric acid is spilled on paper; the cellulose reacts to give a burned appearance, the carbon appears much as soot would in a fire.
A more dramatic reaction occurs when sulfuric acid is added to a tablespoon of white sugar; a rigid column of black, porous carbon will quickly emerge.
The carbon will smell strongly of caramel.

OTHER REACTIONS of SULFURIC ACID:
As an acid, sulfuric acid reacts with most bases to give the corresponding sulfate.
For example, copper(II) sulfate.
This blue salt of copper, commonly used for electroplating and as a fungicide, is prepared by the reaction of copper(II) oxide with sulfuric acid:

CuO + H2SO4 → CuSO4 + H2O
Sulfuric acid can also be used to displace weaker acids from their salts.
Reaction with sodium acetate, for example, displaces acetic acid:

H2SO4 + CH3COONa → NaHSO4 + CH3COOH
Similarly, reacting sulfuric acid with potassium nitrate can be used to produce nitric acid and a precipitate of potassium bisulfate.
When combined with nitric acid, sulfuric acid acts both as an acid and a dehydrating agent, forming the nitronium ion NO2+, which is important in nitration reactions involving electrophilic aromatic substitution.
This type of reaction, where protonation occurs on an oxygen atom, is important in many organic chemistry reactions, such as Fischer esterification and dehydration of alcohols.

Sulfuric acid reacts with most metals via a single displacement reaction to produce hydrogen gas and the metal sulfate.
Dilute H2SO4 attacks iron, aluminium, zinc, manganese, magnesium and nickel, but reactions with tin and copper require the acid to be hot and concentrated.
Lead and tungsten, however, are resistant to sulfuric acid.
The reaction with iron (shown) is typical for most of these metals, but the reaction with tin is unusual in that it produces sulfur dioxide rather than hydrogen.

Fe(s) + H2SO4(aq) → H2(g) + FeSO4(aq)
Sn(s) + 2 H2SO4(aq) → SnSO4(aq) + 2 H2O(l) + SO2(g)

MANUFACTURE OF SULFURIC ACID of SULFURIC ACID:
The process for producing sulfuric acid has four stages:
a) extraction of sulfur
b) conversion of sulfur to sulfur dioxide
c) conversion of sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide
d) conversion of sulfur trioxide to sulfuric acid

(a) Extraction of sulfur
Easily the most important source of sulfur is Sulfuric Acid's recovery from natural gas and oil.
These contain sulfur compounds, both organic and hydrogen sulfide both of which must be removed before they are used as fuels or chemical feedstock.

Another important source of sulfur is as sulfur dioxide from metal refining.
Many metal ores occur as sulfides and are roasted to form an oxide and sulfur dioxide, for example, in the manufacture of lead:
Other metals manufactured from their sulfide ores include copper, nickel and zinc.

Worldwide about 35% of the sulfur is obtained as sulfur dioxide from sulfide ore roasting and this is increasing, as plants which traditionally passed the sulfur dioxide to atmosphere are recovering it as sulfuric acid.

In particular, China makes most of its sulfuric acid from pyrites, an iron sulfide ore.
Sulfuric acid is also obtained from ammonium sulfate, a by-product in the manufacture of poly(methyl 2-methylpropenoate) and also recovered from 'spent' (i.e. used) sulfuric acid.

(b) Conversion of sulfur to sulfur dioxide
If sulfur is the feedstock, it must first be converted to sulfur dioxide.
Molten sulfur is sprayed into a furnace and burnt in a blast of dry air at about 1300 K.

The sulfur burns with a characteristic blue flame.
As excess air is used the emerging gas contains about 10-12% sulfur dioxide and 10% oxygen, by volume.
The gases are very hot and so are passed through heat exchangers (waste heat boilers).

The gases are cooled to about 700 K and the water in the surrounding boiler pipes is converted into steam.
In manufacturing one tonne of sulfuric acid, one tonne of high pressure steam is also produced.

(c) Conversion of sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide (The Contact Process)
A typical plant contains one cylindrical vessel which acts as a fixed bed reactor with four separate beds of catalyst, known as a converter, heated to 700 K, through which the sulfur dioxide and air pass.

The catalyst, vanadium(V) oxide on silica, is generally in the form of small pellets, to which caesium sulfate has been added as a promoter (Figure 2).
The function of the promoter is to lower the melting point of vanadium(V) oxide so that it is molten at 700 K.

(d) Conversion of sulfur trioxide to sulfuric acid
The sulfur trioxide formed from the third bed (and the small amount from the fourth bed) are now converted to
sulfuric acid.

Sulfur trioxide reacts with water and the reaction can be expressed as:
However, water itself cannot be used for absorption as there is a large temperature rise, and a sulfuric acid mist is formed, which is difficult to handle.
Instead, sulfuric acid of about 98% concentration is used.

This is kept at this concentration by addition of water and removal of acid at that concentration.
To keep the temperature at about 400 K, the heat is removed by heat exchangers.

The gases not absorbed contain about 95% nitrogen, 5% oxygen, and traces of sulfur dioxide.
The gas stream is filtered to remove any traces of sulfuric acid mist and is returned to the atmosphere using a high stack.

OCCURRENCE of SULFURIC ACID:
Sulfuric acid is rarely encountered naturally on Earth in anhydrous form, due to its great affinity for water.
Dilute sulfuric acid is a constituent of acid rain, which is formed by atmospheric oxidation of sulfur dioxide in the presence of water—i.e. oxidation of sulfurous acid.
When sulfur-containing fuels such as coal or oil are burned, sulfur dioxide is the main byproduct (besides the chief products carbon oxides and water).

Sulfuric acid is formed naturally by the oxidation of sulfide minerals, such as pyrite:
2 FeS2(s) + 7 O2 + 2 H2O → 2 Fe2+ + 4 SO2−4 4 H+
The resulting highly acidic water is called acid mine drainage (AMD) or acid rock drainage (ARD).

The Fe2+ can be further oxidized to Fe3+:
4 Fe2+ + O2 + 4 H+ → 4 Fe3+ + 2 H2O
The Fe3+ produced can be precipitated as the hydroxide or hydrous iron oxide:

Fe3+ + 3 H2O → Fe(OH)3↓ + 3 H+
The iron(III) ion ("ferric iron") can also oxidize pyrite:
FeS2(s) + 14 Fe3+ + 8 H2O → 15 Fe2+ + 2 SO2−4 16 H+

When iron(III) oxidation of pyrite occurs, the process can become rapid.
pH values below zero have been measured in ARD produced by this process.

ARD can also produce sulfuric acid at a slower rate, so that the acid neutralizing capacity (ANC) of the aquifer can neutralize the produced acid.
In such cases, the total dissolved solids (TDS) concentration of the water can be increased from the dissolution of minerals from the acid-neutralization reaction with the minerals.
Sulfuric acid is used as a defense by certain marine species, for example, the phaeophyte alga Desmarestia munda (order Desmarestiales) concentrates sulfuric acid in cell vacuoles.

Stratospheric aerosol
In the stratosphere, the atmosphere's second layer that is generally between 10 and 50 km above Earth's surface, sulfuric acid is formed by the oxidation of volcanic sulfur dioxide by the hydroxyl radical:

SO2 + HO• → HSO3
HSO3 + O2 → SO3 + HO2
SO3 + H2O → H2SO4
Because sulfuric acid reaches supersaturation in the stratosphere, it can nucleate aerosol particles and provide a surface for aerosol growth via condensation and coagulation with other water-sulfuric acid aerosols.
This results in the stratospheric aerosol layer.

Extraterrestrial sulfuric acid
The permanent Venusian clouds are made of concentrated sulfuric acid, and produce a concentrated sulfuric acid rain, just as the clouds in the atmosphere of Earth are made of water and produce water rain.
Sulfuric acid ice has been detected on Jupiter's moon Europa, where it forms when sulfur ions from Jupiter's magnetosphere implant into the icy surface

SULFUR-IODINE CYCLE of SULFURIC ACID:
The sulfur-iodine cycle is a series of thermo-chemical processes used to obtain hydrogen.
Sulfuric Acid consists of three chemical reactions whose net reactant is water and whose net products are hydrogen and oxygen.

2 H2SO4 → 2 SO2 + 2 H2O + O2 (830°C)
I2 + SO2 + 2 H2O → 2 HI + H2SO4 (120°C)
2 HI → I2 + H2 (320°C)

The sulfur and iodine compounds are recovered and reused, hence the consideration of the process as a cycle.
This process is endothermic and must occur at high temperatures, so energy in the form of heat has to be supplied.

The sulfur-iodine cycle has been proposed as a way to supply hydrogen for a hydrogen-based economy.
It does not require hydrocarbons like current methods of steam reforming.

The sulfur-iodine cycle is currently being researched as a feasible method of obtaining hydrogen, but the concentrated, corrosive acid at high temperatures poses currently insurmountable safety hazards if the process were built on large-scale.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES of SULFURIC ACID:
***Grades of sulfuric acid
Although nearly 100% sulfuric acid solutions can be made, the subsequent loss of SO3 at the boiling point brings the concentration to 98.3% acid.
The 98.3% grade, which is more stable in storage, is the usual form of what is described as "concentrated sulfuric acid".
Other concentrations are used for different purposes.

"Chamber acid" and "tower acid" were the two concentrations of sulfuric acid produced by the lead chamber process, chamber acid being the acid produced in the lead chamber itself (<70% to avoid contamination with nitrosylsulfuric acid) and tower acid being the acid recovered from the bottom of the Glover tower.
They are now obsolete as commercial concentrations of sulfuric acid, although they may be prepared in the laboratory from concentrated sulfuric acid if needed.

In particular, "10 M" sulfuric acid (the modern equivalent of chamber acid, used in many titrations) is prepared by slowly adding 98% sulfuric acid to an equal volume of water, with good stirring: the temperature of the mixture can rise to 80 °C (176 °F) or higher.
Sulfuric acid is a colorless oily liquid, and has a vapor pressure of <0.001 mmHg at 25 °C and 1 mmHg at 145.8 °C, and 98% sulfuric acid has a vapor pressure of <1 mmHg at 40 °C.

In the solid state, sulfuric acid is a molecular solid that forms monoclinic crystals with nearly trigonal lattice parameters.
The structure consists of layers parallel to the (010) plane, in which each molecule is connected by hydrogen bonds to two others.
Hydrates H2SO4·nH2O are known for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 6.5, and 8, although most intermediate hydrates are stable against disproportionation.

***Polarity and conductivity
Anhydrous Sulfuric Acid is a very polar liquid, having a dielectric constant of around 100.
Sulfuric Acid has a high electrical conductivity, a consequence of autoprotolysis, i.e. self-protonation:
2 H2SO4 ⇌ H3SO+4 + HSO−4

The equilibrium constant for autoprotolysis (25 °C) is:
[H3SO4]+[HSO4]− = 2.7 × 10−4
The corresponding equilibrium constant for water, Kw is 10−14, a factor of 1010 (10 billion) smaller.

In spite of the viscosity of the acid, the effective conductivities of the H3SO+4 and HSO−4 ions are high due to an intramolecular proton-switch mechanism (analogous to the Grotthuss mechanism in water), making sulfuric acid a good conductor of electricity.
Sulfuric Acid is also an excellent solvent for many reactions.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES of SULFURIC ACID:
***Acidity
The hydration reaction of sulfuric acid is highly exothermic.
As indicated by its acid dissociation constant, sulfuric acid is a strong acid:

H2SO4 + H2O → H3O+ + HSO−4
Ka1 = 1000 (pKa1 = −3)
Sulfuric Acid of this ionization is HSO−4, the bisulfate anion.

Bisulfate is a far weaker acid:
HSO−4 + H2O → H3O+ + SO2−4 Ka2 = 0.01 (pKa2 = 2)
Sulfuric Acid of this second dissociation is SO2−4, the sulfate anion.

***Dehydration
Concentrated sulfuric acid has a powerful dehydrating property, removing water (H2O) from other chemical compounds such as table sugar (sucrose) and other carbohydrates, to produce carbon, steam, and heat.

Dehydration of table sugar (sucrose) is a common laboratory demonstration.
The sugar darkens as carbon is formed, and a rigid column of black, porous carbon called a carbon snake may emerge.
C12H22O11 sucrose → 12C black graphitic foam + 11H2O (g,l)

Similarly, mixing starch into concentrated sulfuric acid gives elemental carbon and water.
The effect of this can also be seen when concentrated sulfuric acid is spilled on paper.
Paper is composed of cellulose, a polysaccharide related to starch.

The cellulose reacts to give a burnt appearance in which the carbon appears much like soot that results from fire.
Although less dramatic, the action of the acid on cotton, even in diluted form, destroys the fabric.

[C6H10O5]n polysaccharide → 6n C + 5n H2O
The reaction with copper(II) sulfate can also demonstrate the dehydration property of sulfuric acid.

The blue crystals change into white powder as water is removed.
CuSO4·5H2O copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate → CuSO4 anhydrous copper(II) sulfate + 5H2O

REACTIONS WITH SALTS of SULFURIC ACID:
Sulfuric acid reacts with most bases to give the corresponding sulfate or bisulfate.
Aluminium sulfate, also known as paper maker's alum, is made by treating bauxite with sulfuric acid:
2 AlO(OH) + 3 H2SO4 → Al2(SO4)3 + 4 H2O

Sulfuric acid can also be used to displace weaker acids from their salts.
Reaction with sodium acetate, for example, displaces acetic acid, CH3COOH, and forms sodium bisulfate:
H2SO4 + CH3CO2Na → NaHSO4 + CH3COOH

Similarly, treating potassium nitrate with sulfuric acid produces nitric acid.
Sulfuric acid reacts with sodium chloride, and gives hydrogen chloride gas and sodium bisulfate:
NaCl + H2SO4 → NaHSO4 + HCl

When combined with nitric acid, sulfuric acid acts both as an acid and a dehydrating agent, forming the nitronium ion NO+2, which is important in nitration reactions involving electrophilic aromatic substitution.
This type of reaction, where protonation occurs on an oxygen atom, is important in many organic chemistry reactions, such as Fischer esterification and dehydration of alcohols.

When allowed to react with superacids, sulfuric acid can act as a base and can be protonated, forming the [H3SO4]+ ion.
Salts of [H3SO4]+ have been prepared (e.g. trihydroxyoxosulfonium hexafluoroantimonate(V) [H3SO4]+[SbF6]−) using the following reaction in liquid HF:
[(CH3)3SiO]2SO2 + 3 HF + SbF5 → [H3SO4]+[SbF6]− + 2 (CH3)3SiF

The above reaction is thermodynamically favored due to the high bond enthalpy of the Si–F bond in the side product.
Protonation using simply fluoroantimonic acid, however, has met with failure, as pure sulfuric acid undergoes self-ionization to give [H3O]+ ions:
2 H2SO4 ⇌ H3O+ + HS2O−7
which prevents the conversion of H2SO4 to [H3SO4]+ by the HF/SbF5 system.

REACTIONS WITH METALS of SULFURIC ACID:
Even diluted sulfuric acid reacts with many metals via a single displacement reaction, like other typical acids, producing hydrogen gas and salts (the metal sulfate).
It attacks reactive metals (metals at positions above copper in the reactivity series) such as iron, aluminium, zinc, manganese, magnesium, and nickel.

Fe + H2SO4 → H2 + FeSO4
Concentrated sulfuric acid can serve as an oxidizing agent, releasing sulfur dioxide:
Cu + 2 H2SO4 → SO2 + 2 H2O + SO2−4 Cu2+
Lead and tungsten, however, are resistant to sulfuric acid.

REACTIONS WITH CARBON AND SULFUR of SULFURIC ACID:
Hot concentrated sulfuric acid oxidizes carbon (as bituminous coal) and sulfur:
C + 2 H2SO4 → CO2 + 2 SO2 + 2 H2O
S + 2 H2SO4 → 3 SO2 + 2 H2O

ELECTROPHILIC AROMATIC SUBSTITUTION of SULFURIC ACID:
Benzene and many derivatives undergo electrophilic aromatic substitution with sulfuric acid to give the corresponding sulfonic acids:

SULFUR–IODINE CYCLE
Sulfuric acid can be used to produce hydrogen from water:
2 I2 + 2 SO2 + 4 H2O → 4 HI + 2 H2SO4 (120 °C, Bunsen reaction)
2 H2SO4 → 2 SO2 + 2 H2O + O2 (830 °C)
4 HI → 2 I2 + 2 H2 (320 °C)

The compounds of sulfur and iodine are recovered and reused, hence the process is called the sulfur–iodine cycle.
This process is endothermic and must occur at high temperatures, so energy in the form of heat has to be supplied.
The sulfur–iodine cycle has been proposed as a way to supply hydrogen for a hydrogen-based economy.

It is an alternative to electrolysis, and does not require hydrocarbons like current methods of steam reforming.
But note that all of the available energy in the hydrogen so produced is supplied by the heat used to make it

HISTORY of SULFURIC ACID:
Vitriols
The study of vitriols (hydrated sulfates of various metals forming glassy minerals from which sulfuric acid can be derived) began in ancient times.

Sumerians had a list of types of vitriol that they classified according to the substances' color.
Some of the earliest discussions on the origin and properties of vitriol is in the works of the Greek physician Dioscorides (first century AD) and the Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder (23–79 AD).
Galen also discussed its medical use.

Metallurgical uses for vitriolic substances were recorded in the Hellenistic alchemical works of Zosimos of Panopolis, in the treatise Phisica et Mystica, and the Leyden papyrus X.
Medieval Islamic alchemists like the authors writing under the name of Jabir ibn Hayyan (died c. 806 – c. 816, known in Latin as Geber), Abu Bakr al-Razi (865–925, known in Latin as Rhazes), Ibn Sina (980–1037, known in Latin as Avicenna), and Muhammad ibn Ibrahim al-Watwat (1234–1318) included vitriol in their mineral classification lists.

Jabir ibn Hayyan, Abu Bakr al-Razi, Ibn Sina, et al.
The Jabirian authors and al-Razi experimented extensively with the distillation of various substances, including vitriols.
In one recipe recorded in his Kitāb al-Asrār ('Book of Secrets'), al-Razi may have created sulfuric acid without being aware of it:

Take white (Yemeni) alum, dissolve it and purify it by filtration.
Then distil (green?) vitriol with copper-green (the acetate), and mix (the distillate) with the filtered solution of the purified alum, afterwards let it solidify (or crystallise) in the glass beaker.
You will get the best qalqadis (white alum) that may be had.

— Abu Bakr al-Razi, Kitāb al-Asrār
In an anonymous Latin work variously attributed to Aristotle (under the title Liber Aristotilis, 'Book of Aristotle'), to al-Razi (under the title Lumen luminum magnum, 'Great Light of Lights'), or to Ibn Sina, the author speaks of an 'oil' (oleum) obtained through the distillation of iron(II) sulfate (green vitriol), which was likely 'oil of vitriol' or sulfuric acid.

The work refers multiple times to Jabir ibn Hayyan's Seventy Books (Liber de septuaginta), one of the few Arabic Jabir works that were translated into Latin.
The author of the version attributed to al-Razi also refers to the Liber de septuaginta as his own work, showing that he erroneously believed the Liber de septuaginta to be a work by al-Razi.

There are several indications that the anonymous work was an original composition in Latin, although according to one manuscript it was translated by a certain Raymond of Marseilles, meaning that it may also have been a translation from the Arabic.
According to Ahmad Y. al-Hassan, three recipes for sulfuric acid occur in an anonymous Garshuni manuscript containing a compilation taken from several authors and dating from before c. 1100 AD.

One of them runs as follows:
The water of vitriol and sulphur which is used to irrigate the drugs: yellow vitriol three parts, yellow sulphur one part, grind them and distil them in the manner of rose-water.
A recipe for the preparation of sulfuric acid is mentioned in Risālat Jaʿfar al-Sādiq fī ʿilm al-ṣanʿa, an Arabic treatise falsely attributed to the Shi'i Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq (died 765).

Julius Ruska dated this treatise to the 13th century, but according to Ahmad Y. al-Hassan it likely dates from an earlier period:
Then distil green vitriol in a cucurbit and alembic, using medium fire; take what you obtain from the distillate, and you will find it clear with a greenish tint.

Vincent of Beauvais, Albertus Magnus, and pseudo-Geber
Sulfuric acid was called 'oil of vitriol' by medieval European alchemists because it was prepared by roasting iron(II) sulfate or green vitriol in an iron retort.
The first allusions to it in works that are European in origin appear in the thirteenth century AD, as for example in the works of Vincent of Beauvais, in the Compositum de Compositis ascribed to Albertus Magnus, and in pseudo-Geber's Summa perfectionis

PRODUCING SULFURIC ACID FROM SULFURof SULFURIC ACID:
A method of producing oleum sulphuris per campanam, or "oil of sulfur by the bell", was known by the 16th century: it involved burning sulfur under a glass bell in moist weather (or, later, under a moistened bell).

However, it was very inefficient (according to Gesner, 5 pounds (2.3 kg) of sulfur converted into less than 1 ounce (0.03 kg) of acid), and the resulting product was contaminated by sulfurous acid (or rather, solution of sulfur dioxide) so most alchemists (including, for example, Isaac Newton) did not consider it equivalent to "oil of vitriol".

In the 17th century, Johann Rudolf Glauber discovered that adding saltpeter (potassium nitrate, KNO3) significantly improves the output, also replacing moisture with steam.
As saltpeter decomposes, it oxidizes the sulfur to SO3, which combines with water to produce sulfuric acid.
In 1736, Joshua Ward, a London pharmacist, used this method to begin the first large-scale production of sulfuric acid.

***Lead chamber process
In 1746 in Birmingham, John Roebuck adapted this method to produce sulfuric acid in lead-lined chambers, which were stronger, less expensive, and could be made larger than the previously used glass containers.

This process allowed the effective industrialization of sulfuric acid production.
After several refinements, this method, called the lead chamber process or "chamber process", remained the standard for sulfuric acid production for almost two centuries with a purity of 62% and a conversion of 75%.

***Distillation of pyrite
Sulfuric acid created by John Roebuck's process approached a 65% concentration.
Later refinements to the lead chamber process by French chemist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and British chemist John Glover improved concentration to 78%.
However, the manufacture of some dyes and other chemical processes require a more concentrated product.

Throughout the 18th century, this could only be made by dry distilling minerals in a technique similar to the original alchemical processes.
Pyrite (iron disulfide, FeS2) was heated in air to yield iron(II) sulfate, FeSO4, which was oxidized by further heating in air to form iron(III) sulfate, Fe2(SO4)3, which, when heated to 480 °C, decomposed to iron(III) oxide and sulfur trioxide, which could be passed through water to yield sulfuric acid in any concentration.
However, the expense of this process prevented the large-scale use of concentrated sulfuric acid

***Contact process
In 1831, British vinegar merchant Peregrine Phillips patented the contact process, which was a far more economical process for producing sulfur trioxide and concentrated sulfuric acid.
Today, nearly all of the world's sulfuric acid is produced using this method.

In the early to mid 19th century "vitriol" plants existed, among other places, in Prestonpans in Scotland, Shropshire and the Lagan Valley in County Antrim, Northern Ireland, where it was used as a bleach for linen.
Early bleaching of linen was done using lactic acid from sour milk but this was a slow process and the use of vitriol sped up the bleaching process

PRODUCTION of SULFURIC ACID:
Contact process, Wet sulfuric acid process, and Lead chamber process
Sulfuric acid is produced from sulfur, oxygen and water via the conventional contact process (DCDA) or the wet sulfuric acid process (WSA).

CONTACT PROCESS
In the first step, sulfur is burned to produce sulfur dioxide.
S(s) + O2 → SO2
The sulfur dioxide is oxidized to sulfur trioxide by oxygen in the presence of a vanadium(V) oxide catalyst.
This reaction is reversible and the formation of the sulfur trioxide is exothermic.
2 SO2 + O2 ⇌ 2 SO3

The sulfur trioxide is absorbed into 97–98% H2SO4 to form oleum (H2S2O7), also known as fuming sulfuric acid or pyrosulfuric acid.
The oleum is then diluted with water to form concentrated sulfuric acid.
H2SO4 + SO3 → H2S2O7
H2S2O7 + H2O → 2 H2SO4

WET SULFURIC ACID PROCESS
Main article: Wet sulfuric acid process
Directly dissolving SO3 in water, called the "wet sulfuric acid process", is rarely practiced because the reaction is extremely exothermic, resulting in a hot aerosol of sulfuric acid that requires condensation and separation.

In the first step, sulfur is burned to produce sulfur dioxide:
S + O2 → SO2 (−297 kJ/mol)

or, alternatively, hydrogen sulfide (H2S) gas is incinerated to SO2 gas:
2 H2S + 3 O2 → 2 H2O + 2 SO2 (−1036 kJ/mol)

The sulfur dioxide then oxidized to sulfur trioxide using oxygen with vanadium(V) oxide as catalyst.
2 SO2 + O2 ⇌ 2 SO3 (−198 kJ/mol) (reaction is reversible)

The sulfur trioxide is hydrated into sulfuric acid H2SO4:
SO3 + H2O → H2SO4(g) (−101 kJ/mol)

The last step is the condensation of the sulfuric acid to liquid 97–98% H2SO4:
H2SO4(g) → H2SO4(l) (−69 kJ/mol)

OTHER METHODS
Burning sulfur together with saltpeter (potassium nitrate, KNO3), in the presence of steam, has been used historically.
As saltpeter decomposes, it oxidizes the sulfur to SO3, which combines with water to produce sulfuric acid.

Prior to 1900, most sulfuric acid was manufactured by the lead chamber process.
As late as 1940, up to 50% of sulfuric acid manufactured in the United States was produced by chamber process plants.

A wide variety of laboratory syntheses are known, and typically begin from sulfur dioxide or an equivalent salt.
In the metabisulfite method, hydrochloric acid reacts with metabisulfite to produce sulfur dioxide vapors.

The gas is bubbled through nitric acid, which will release brown/red vapors of nitrogen dioxide as the reaction proceeds.
The completion of the reaction is indicated by the ceasing of the fumes.
This method conveniently does not produce an inseparable mist.

3 SO2 + 2 HNO3 + 2 H2O → 3 H2SO4 + 2 NO
Alternatively, dissolving sulfur dioxide in an aqueous solution of an oxidizing metal salt such as copper(II) or iron(III) chloride:

2 FeCl3 + 2 H2O + SO2 → 2 FeCl2 + H2SO4 + 2 HCl
2 CuCl2 + 2 H2O + SO2 → 2 CuCl + H2SO4 + 2 HCl

Two less well-known laboratory methods of producing sulfuric acid, albeit in dilute form and requiring some extra effort in purification, rely on electrolysis.
A solution of copper(II) sulfate can be electrolyzed with a copper cathode and platinum/graphite anode to give spongy copper at cathode and oxygen gas at the anode.
The solution of dilute sulfuric acid indicates completion of the reaction when it turns from blue to clear (production of hydrogen at cathode is another sign):
2 CuSO4 + 2 H2O → 2 Cu + 2 H2SO4 + O2

More costly, dangerous, and troublesome is the electrobromine method, which employs a mixture of sulfur, water, and hydrobromic acid as the electrolyte.
The sulfur is pushed to bottom of container under the acid solution.
Then the copper cathode and platinum/graphite anode are used with the cathode near the surface and the anode is positioned at the bottom of the electrolyte to apply the current.

This may take longer and emits toxic bromine/sulfur-bromide vapors, but the reactant acid is recyclable.
Overall, only the sulfur and water are converted to sulfuric acid and hydrogen (omitting losses of acid as vapors):

2 HBr → H2 + Br2 (electrolysis of aqueous hydrogen bromide)
Br2 + Br− ⇌ Br−3 (initial tribromide production, eventually reverses as Br− depletes)

2 S + Br2 → S2Br2 (bromine reacts with sulfur to form disulfur dibromide)
S2Br2 + 8 H2O + 5 Br2 → 2 H2SO4 + 12 HBr (oxidation and hydration of disulfur dibromide)

PHYSICAL and CHEMICAL PROPERTIES of SULFURIC ACID:
Molecular Weight: 98.08 g/mol
XLogP3-AA: -1.4
Hydrogen Bond Donor Count: 2
Hydrogen Bond Acceptor Count: 4
Rotatable Bond Count: 0
Exact Mass: 97.96737971 Da
Monoisotopic Mass: 97.96737971 Da
Topological Polar Surface Area: 83 Å²
Heavy Atom Count: 5
Formal Charge: 0

Complexity: 81.3
Isotope Atom Count: 0
Defined Atom Stereocenter Count: 0
Undefined Atom Stereocenter Count: 0
Defined Bond Stereocenter Count: 0
Undefined Bond Stereocenter Count: 0
Covalently-Bonded Unit Count: 1
Compound Is Canonicalized: Yes
Chemical formula: H2SO4, sometimes expressed (HO)2SO2
Molar mass: 98.079 g/mol

Appearance: Colorless viscous liquid
Odor: Odorless
Density: 1.8302 g/cm3, liquid
Melting point: 10.31 °C (50.56 °F; 283.46 K)
Boiling point: 337 °C (639 °F; 610 K)
When sulfuric acid is above 300 °C (572 °F; 573 K), it gradually decomposes to SO3 + H2O
Solubility in water: miscible, exothermic
Vapor pressure: 0.001 mmHg (20 °C)
Acidity (pKa): pKa1 = −2.8
pKa2 = 1.99

Conjugate base: Bisulfate
Viscosity: 26.7 cP (20 °C)
Structure:
Crystal structure: monoclinic
Space group: C2/c
Lattice constant:
a = 818.1 pm, b = 469.60 pm, c = 856.3 pm
α = 90°, β = 111.39°, γ = 90°
Formula units (Z): 4
Thermochemistry:
Std molar entropy (S⦵298): 157 J/(mol·K)

Std enthalpy of formation (ΔfH⦵298): −814 kJ/mol
Enthalpy of vaporization (ΔfHvap): 56 kJ/mol
Chemical name: Sulfuric acid
IUPAC name: Sulfuric acid
Molecular formula: H₂SO₄
Molecular weight: 98.079 g/mol
Type: Strong inorganic acid
Structure: Tetraoxosulfate(VI) acid
Nature: Highly corrosive, strong dehydrating and oxidizing agent

CAS Number: 7664-93-9
EC Number: 231-639-5
E number: E513 (acidity regulators, ...)
Sulfuric acid is a clear, colourless, oily liquid.
Melting Point: 10.35°C
Boiling Point: 315-338°C
Vapour Density: 3.4
Specific Gravity: 1.84
Appearance: Colorless, oily (viscous) liquid
Odor: Odorless

Molar mass: 98.079 g/mol
Density: ~1.84 g/cm³ (at 25 °C)
Melting point: 10.3 °C
Boiling point: 337 °C (decomposes)
Viscosity: Highly viscous (“syrupy”)
Solubility: Completely miscible with water
Heat of dilution: Highly exothermic when mixed with water
Hygroscopic nature: Strongly absorbs moisture from air
Electrical conductivity: Conducts electricity in aqueous solution (strong electrolyte)
Appearance: Colorless to slightly yellow oily liquid

Odor: Odorless
Density: ~1.84 g/cm³ (20–25 °C)
Melting point: ~10 °C (pure acid)
Boiling point: ~335–337 °C (decomposes)
Viscosity: High (syrupy consistency)
Solubility: Completely miscible with water (exothermic)
Vapor pressure: Very low (~0.0001 hPa at 20 °C)
pH: <1 (strongly acidic)
Hygroscopicity: Strong (absorbs water from air)
Electrical conductivity: High in aqueous solution

FIRST AID MEASURES of SULFURIC ACID:
-Description of first-aid measures
*General advice:
Show this material safety data sheet to the doctor in attendance.
*If inhaled:
After inhalation:
Fresh air.
*In case of skin contact:
Take off immediately all contaminated clothing.
Rinse skin with
water/ shower.
*In case of eye contact:
After eye contact:
Rinse out with plenty of water.
Call in ophthalmologist.
Remove contact lenses.
*If swallowed:
After swallowing:
Immediately make victim drink water (two glasses at most).
Consult a physician.
-Indication of any immediate medical attention and special treatment needed.
No data available

ACCIDENTAL RELEASE MEASURES of SULFURIC ACID:
-Environmental precautions:
Do not let product enter drains.
-Methods and materials for containment and cleaning up:
Cover drains.
Collect, bind, and pump off spills.
Observe possible material restrictions.
Take up dry.
Dispose of properly.
Clean up affected area.

FIRE FIGHTING MEASURES of SULFURIC ACID:
-Extinguishing media:
*Suitable extinguishing media:
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Foam
Dry powder
*Unsuitable extinguishing media:
For this substance/mixture no limitations of extinguishing agents are given.
-Further information:
Prevent fire extinguishing water from contaminating surface water or the ground water system.

EXPOSURE CONTROLS/PERSONAL PROTECTION of SULFURIC ACID:
-Control parameters:
--Ingredients with workplace control parameters:
-Exposure controls:
--Personal protective equipment:
*Eye/face protection:
Use equipment for eye protection.
Safety glasses
*Body Protection:
protective clothing
*Respiratory protection:
Recommended Filter type: Filter A
-Control of environmental exposure:
Do not let product enter drains.

HANDLING and STORAGE of SULFURIC ACID:
-Conditions for safe storage, including any incompatibilities:
*Storage conditions:
Tightly closed.
Dry.

STABILITY and REACTIVITY of SULFURIC ACID:
-Chemical stability:
The product is chemically stable under standard ambient conditions (room temperature).
-Possibility of hazardous reactions:
No data available