COCHINEAL

Cochineal is widely used as a natural colorant in the food industry, particularly in beverages, confectionery, dairy products, sauces, and processed meats.
Cochineal is used in formulations such as lipsticks, blushes, and skincare products.
Cochineal is also utilized in pharmaceuticals as a coloring agent in syrups, tablets, and capsules.

CAS Number: 1390-65-4 (commonly assigned to cochineal extract)
EC Number: 215-724-4
Molecular Formula: Not a single defined formula (mixture), main component: C₂₂H₂₀O₁₃ (carminic acid)
Molecular Weight: Not fixed (mixture); main component ~492.39 g/mol

SYNONYMS:
Cochineal, Cochineal extract, Cochineal dye, Natural Red 4, CI 75470, E120, Crimson extract, Carmine precursor, Dactylopius coccus extract, Cochineal color, Karmin (extract form)
Natural Red 4, CI 75470, cochenille (Fr.), Cochenille (Deut.), cocciniglia (It.), cochinilla (Esp.), Nopalschildlaus (Deut.), Koschenille (Deut.), Karmin (Deut.), kogchinili (Gr.), cocciniglia (It.), cochenille (Ned.), cochonilha (Port.), cochinilha (Port.), carmine, crimson lake, grana, purple lake, red lake, Florentine lake, Venice lake, Paris lake, Vienna lake, nochestli, Nupal's blood, globe lake, karmesin lake, Munich lake, metica, mestique, grana finia, grana silvestra, zacatilla (black cochineal), Dactylopius coccus, Coccus cacti

Cochineal is a natural red dye obtained from the dried bodies of the female Dactylopius coccus insect.
Cochineal has been used for centuries as a coloring agent in textiles, food, and cosmetics.
The primary coloring component of cochineal is carminic acid, which can be further processed to produce carmine pigments.

Unlike pure chemical substances, cochineal is a complex natural extract rather than a single defined compound.
Cochineal is classified as a natural dye and is commonly labeled as E120 in the European Union.
Its composition variability distinguishes Cochineal from pure compounds like carminic acid, making standardization an important factor in industrial use.

Cochineal serves as the raw material for producing carmine pigments through complexation with metal ions such as aluminum or calcium.
This process significantly enhances color stability and expands Cochineal's range of applications.
The production and the use of luxury colors and textiles were regulated in countries such as Spain and Italy.

Dyestuffs produced from the cochineal insect were used for dyeing the clothes of kings, nobles, and the clergy.
In 1454, Pope Paul II officially changed the color of the robes worn by Catholic cardinals from "Cardinal's purple" to vibrant red.
By 1558, their red robes would have been created with American cochineal.

By the 1600s, cochineal also gave the English "Redcoats" their distinctive officers' uniforms.
Carmine became strong competition for other colorants such as madder root, kermes, Polish cochineal, Armenian cochineal, brazilwood, and Tyrian purple.
Cochineal became the most important insect dye used in the production of hand-woven oriental rugs, almost completely displacing lac.

Cochineal was also used for handicrafts and tapestries.
Spanish influence also changed the way in which Aztecs used pigments, particularly in their manuscripts.
The use of cochineal in manuscripts was complemented by Spanish pigments like minium and.

The image of Moctezuma's death (seen to the right) uses both indigenous and Spanish pigments.
The scholar Diana Magaloni Kerpel argues that the presence of cochineal and minium in this 16th century image is representative of the transition and influence between cultures.
During the colonial period in Latin America, many indigenous communities produced cochineal under a type of contract known as Repartimiento de Mercancías.

This was a type of "contract forwarding" agreement, in which a trader lent money to producers in advance, with a "call option" to buy the product once it was harvested.
Communities with a history of cochineal production and export have been found to have lower poverty rates and higher female literacy, but also smaller indigenous populations.
The cochineal (/ˌkɒtʃɪˈniːl, ˈkɒtʃɪniːl/ KOTCH-in-EEL, -⁠eel, US also /ˌkoʊtʃɪˈniːl, ˈkoʊtʃɪniːl/ KOH-chin-EEL, -⁠eel; Dactylopius coccus) is a scale insect in the suborder Sternorrhyncha, from which the natural dye carmine is derived.

A primarily sessile parasite native to tropical and subtropical South America through North America (Mexico and the Southwest United States), this insect lives on cacti in the genus Opuntia, feeding on plant moisture and nutrients.
The insects are found on the pads of prickly pear cacti, collected by brushing them off the plants, and dried.

The insect produces carminic acid that deters predation by other insects.
Carminic acid, typically 17–24% of dried insects' weight, can be extracted from the body and eggs, then mixed with aluminium or calcium salts to make carmine dye, also known as cochineal.
Today, carmine is primarily used as a colorant in food and in lipstick (E120 or Natural Red 4).

Carmine dye was used in the Americas for coloring fabrics and became an important export good in the 16th century during the colonial period.
Production of cochineal is depicted in the Codex Osuna (1565).
After synthetic pigments and dyes such as alizarin were invented in the late 19th century, use of natural-dye products gradually diminished.

Fears over the safety of artificial food additives renewed the popularity of cochineal dyes, and the increased demand has made cultivation of the insect profitable again, with Peru being the largest producer, followed by Mexico, Chile, Argentina and the Canary Islands.
Other species in the genus Dactylopius can be used to produce "cochineal extract", and are extremely difficult to distinguish from D. coccus, even for expert taxonomists; the scientific term D. coccus and the vernacular "cochineal insect" are sometimes used, intentionally or casually, and possibly with misleading effect, to refer to other species.

Cochineal is one of the few water-soluble colorants to resist degradation with time.
Cochineal is one of the most light- and heat-stable and oxidation-resistant of all the natural organic colorants and is even more stable than many synthetic food colors.
Cochineal is considered safe enough for cosmetic use in the eye area.

Because it has a complicated structure involving multiple chemical groups, it is very difficult to create a synthetic molecule for cochineal.
In 1991, Cochineal was first synthesized in the laboratory by organic chemists.
In 2018, researchers genetically engineered the fungus Aspergillus nidulans to produce Cochineal; the bacterium Escherichia coli was engineered to produce carminic acid in 2021.

Cochineal, a tiny, cactus-dwelling insect that produces a vibrant red pigment, was harvested for thousands of years by Indigenous peoples to produce a dye for their own textiles.
Following the Spanish invasion of the Americas, cochineal ultimately became a globally traded commodity.
In Europe, Cochineal's red became the color of power, tinting the red coats of English soldiers and the Catholic clergy’s capes.

Cochineal's commerce transformed the world of textiles, art and trade, but at the expense of the Indigenous knowledge systems and labor that brought it to bear in the first place.
This is a story of how a color changed the world, and how the world exploited a resource.
Cochineal, red dyestuff consisting of the dried, pulverized bodies of certain female scale insects, Dactylopius coccus, of the Coccidae family, cactus-eating insects native to tropical and subtropical America.

The insects are carefully brushed from the cacti into bags and are then killed by immersion in hot water or by exposure to sunlight, steam, or the heat of an oven.
Much of the variety in the appearance of commercial cochineal is caused by the differing modes of treatment.
It takes 70,000 insects to make one pound of cochineal.

The cochineal color goes by many different names such as carmine, Natural Red 4, and E1201.
Cochineal comes from a miniscule, parasitic insect that feeds off the prickly pear cactus that grows throughout much of the Americas.
The female insects attach themselves to a prickly pear cactus pad and create a fuzzy, cocoon-like structure.

Where they will remain for the rest of their lives.
In contrast, the male cochineals do not permanently attach themselves to a cactus pad; instead, they remain small and mobile.
Because the female cochineals do not move, they require some sort of protection from predators.

To this affect, the female cochineals produce carminic acid, which acts as a natural form of insect-repellant.
This acid is the ingredient responsible for the historical cochineal craze.
Raymond Lee, a noted historian, talks about cochineal processing in his book, Cochineal Production and Trade in New Spain to 1600.

When speaking of their size and weight, Lee says, “Of almost microscopic size, 25,000 of these insects were generally required for a pound when freshly gathered.
After drying, 70,000 might be required, depending on the drying method employed.”
Each one of those thousands of insects had to be gathered by hand.

And hundreds of tons of cochineal were exported from the New World to the Old.
Many different methods were used to kill and dry the cochineal such as boiling the insects, drying them in the sun, or steaming them.
Cochineal’s fame has a long history that began long before Spain’s conquest of Mexico.

Before Hernando Cortes had even set foot on the continent, cochineal was being farmed by the native populations of the Americas.
There was a noteworthy market for Cochineal in Aztec culture; it appeared in their art, clothes, and rituals.
Cochineal was precious enough that it even served as a form of tribute for the last Aztec emperor, Montezuma II.

After Hernando Cortes conquered the Aztec kingdom in the early 1500s, cochineal was largely ignored for several decades.
At the time, the most brilliant red dye found in Europe was a dye known as European kermes.
After his conquest, Cortes learned of cochineal, and he mistook it for this other dye.

The king of Spain requested that Cortes bring as much of this “European kermes” as possible back to Spain, and, as it turns out, Cortes instead sent back the far more valuable and potent cochineal.
Cortes was ordered to send back the dyestuff in 1523, yet it was only after 1550 that Spain began to produce and sell cochineal in earnest.
Soon, Spain, which controlled most of the area where cochineal naturally grew, had established a thriving monopoly of cochineal and was exporting shiploads of it to Europe.

Cochineal would be second only to silver as Spain’s most valuable export from the New World.
Humans throughout history have sought colors with which to decorate their clothes, buildings, ceremonial items, and even bodies.
In the past, some colors were incredibly difficult or expensive to create or reproduce.

That is why, in general, royalty or people of very high status would wear bright, unique colors, and the common people would be dressed in drab, earthy colors.
Historically, one of the hardest colors to find or produce was the color red.
This is the reason for cochineal’s importance.

Cochineal is a deep, beautiful, lush red.
Cochineal can come in a variety of colors, from a near-scarlet to a deep purple, depending on how it is processed and the presence of any additives.
In paintings, cochineal was often used as a glaze, which allowed it to quietly hide in the background instead of dazzling the audience with its powerful color.

At the time of cochineal’s discovery by Europe, there was no red dye that could compare to its brilliance and potency.
The closest thing to it was the weak European kermes, which cochineal is 10 to 12 times more powerful than.
This is why it became a literal treasure for the kingdom of Spain.

In order to maintain its monopoly of the valuable dye, Spain kept the details of cochineal a secret.
Ships bearing cochineal could only land at certain ports, and there was even a death sentence to discourage would-be smugglers.
Fortunately for Spain, most of the attempts transplant cochineal ultimately failed.

Because cochineal was so secretive, many speculations arose about its true origins.
Many people incorrectly guessed that cochineal was some type of plant-based grain, because of its common name, grana.
Because of the zealous guarding of this secret, Spain was able to maintain Cochineal's monopoly for decades.

Eventually, Spain did lose its control over cochineal, but it did provide an important revenue for Spain for several centuries.
The cochineal business continued to thrive until the 1900s, when synthetic dyes, which were much cheaper and less labor-intensive than cochineal, began to be produced on a large scale.
Thus, cochineal gradually fell out of use.

In recent years however, cochineal has begun to regain some of its original value, primarily as the key ingredient in the E120 colorant.
When it was realized that synthetic dyes in foods can be dangerous to humans, cochineal began to be used to dye many different types of foods.
Cochineal has affected our modern world and economy in ways that we can never understand.

While it is now relatively unknown and unappreciated, Cochineal was once important and precious to many of the ancestors of those who live in the Borderland region.
When I started this research, I was fascinated to learn that men throughout history lived and died for cochineal.
Cochineal made me wonder if the things that we live and strive for will still be valued in five centuries.

Cochineal is a natural, bright red dye obtained from the body of the female insects Dactylopius coccus Costa (formerly Coccus cacti) that live on nopal cactus (Cactus opuntia or C. coccinilifera) in Mexico, the Canary Islands, and in Central and South America.
Cochineal was imported to Europe as early as 1540 where it quickly replaced kermes as the primary red dyestuff.

The insects are collected from the cacti, then killed and dried in the sun or in an oven.
Cochineal is extracted from dried insects using water or alcohol.
Cochineal contains about 10% carminic acid, 2% coccerin wax and 10% fat.

Cochineal dye is the common name of a pigment obtained from the female insect Dactylopius coccus.
This is a sap insect that lives on the surface of plants and only feeds from sap – hence the name.
They usually look like a cottony fluff over the green plant surface.

Beetles, on the other hand, are a different species entirely – and can be recognized by their outer hard wing cases and a hard upper body.
The chemical name of the pigment that is extracted from the cochineal insect is called carminic acid – it is an anthraquinone, one of the many natural pigments found in plants and animals and is part of the defense system of the insect – a vibrant deterrent that helps to protect it from ants, its natural predators.

USES and APPLICATIONS of COCHINEAL:
Cochineal is widely used as a natural colorant in the food industry, particularly in beverages, confectionery, dairy products, sauces, and processed meats.
Cochineal is favored in products requiring a natural label and stable red coloration under acidic conditions.
In cosmetics, cochineal is used in formulations such as lipsticks, blushes, and skincare products.

Cochineal is also utilized in pharmaceuticals as a coloring agent in syrups, tablets, and capsules.
Historically, cochineal has been used extensively in textile dyeing, producing vibrant and long-lasting red fabrics.
Cochineal is also used in artistic and biological staining applications.

Cochineal continues to be used as a fabric dye, a cosmetics dye and as a food coloring.
Cochineal is also used in histology as a preparatory stain for the examination of tissues and carbohydrates.
As of 2005, Peru produced 200 tons of cochineal dye per year and the Canary Islands produced 20 tons per year.

Chile and Mexico also export cochineal.
France is believed to be the world's largest importer, and Japan and Italy also import the insect.
Much of these imports are processed and re-exported to other developed economies.

As of 2005, the market price of cochineal was between US$50 and 80 per kilogram, while synthetic raw food dyes are available at prices as low as $10–20 per kilogram.
Natural Cochineal dye used in food and cosmetics can render the product unacceptable to vegetarian or vegan consumers.
Many Muslims consider Cochineal-containing food forbidden (haraam) because the dye is extracted from insects and all insects except the locust are haram in Islam.

Jews also avoid food containing this additive, though Cochineal is not treif, and some authorities allow its use because the insect is dried and reduced to powder.
The water-soluble form, cochineal extract, is used in a wide variety of beverages; the insoluble form, carmine, is used in a wide variety of products.
They can be found in meat, sausages, processed poultry products (meat products cannot be colored in the United States unless they are labeled as such), surimi, marinades, alcoholic drinks, bakery products and toppings, cookies, desserts, icings, pie fillings, jams, preserves, gelatin desserts, juice beverages, varieties of cheddar cheese and other dairy products, sauces, and sweets.

A significant proportion of the insoluble Cochineal pigment produced is used in the cosmetics industry for hair- and skin-care products, lipsticks, face powders, rouges, and blushes.
A bright red dye and the stain Cochineal used in microbiology is often made from the carmine extract, too.
The pharmaceutical industry uses cochineal to color pills and ointments.

Cochineal-colored wool and cotton continue to be important materials for Mexican folk art and crafts.
Some towns in the Mexican state of Oaxaca continue to follow traditional practices of producing and using cochineal when making handmade textiles.
In Guatemala, Heifer International has partnered with local women who wished to reintroduce traditional artisanal practices of cochineal production and use.

Cochineal is used to produce scarlet, crimson, orange, and other tints and to prepare pigments such as lake and carmine.
Cochineal was introduced into Europe from Mexico, where it had been used long before the coming of the Spaniards.
Cochineal has been replaced almost entirely by synthetic dyes, but it continues to be used principally as a colouring agent in cosmetics and beverages.

Its dyeing power is attributed to cochinealin, or carminic acid, obtained by boiling cochineal in water.
Cochineal also contains glyceryl myristate (a fat) and coccerin (cochineal wax).
Cochineal was used in many parts of the European economy.

One notable use was as a dye for the famous British “redcoats”.
The regular soldiers’ uniforms were usually dyed with cheaper dyes, but the officers’ uniforms mainly used the expensive cochineal.
Cochineal was also used in many of the famous art pieces of Europe.

Many paintings by famous artists such as Peter Paul Rubens, Rembrandt van Rijn, Antony van Dyck, and others all used cochineal.
Often it is known that a certain artist used cochineal in their works, but it can be difficult to tell which pieces contain it without destroying the art.
Cochineal can be found in pharmaceutical and cosmetic products and is often used in foods such as yogurts, meats, ice cream, smoothies, and chocolate.

In fact, you might be surprised to learn that you have been consistently eating crushed bugs for years.
Cochineal was usually used as either a red solution or precipitated to make carmine, an aluminum or aluminum-tin lake.
Cochineal produces a transparent lake pigment that has poor lightfastness and fades in strong sunlight.

USE COCHINEAL AS PIGMENT:
Prior to the Spanish invasion, Aztecs also used cochineal pigments in their manuscripts.
The 16th century Florentine Codex contains a variety of illustrations with multiple variations of the red pigments.
Specifically in the case of achiotl (light red), technical analysis of the paint reveals multiple layers of Cochineal although the layering of the pigment is not visible to the naked eye.

Therefore, Cochineal proves that the process of applying multiple layers is more significant in comparison to the actual color itself.
Furthermore, the process of layering the various hues of the same pigment on top of each other enabled the Aztec artists to create variations in the intensity of the subject matter.
A bolder application of pigment draws the viewer's eye to the subject matter which commands attention and suggests a power of the viewer.

A weaker application of Cochineal commands less attention and has less power.
This would suggest that the Aztec associated the intensity of pigments with the idea of power and life.
Pigments are insoluble finely ground particles which are mixed with a liquid to make a paint.

To be useful as a pigment, a substance should be insoluble in the vehicle with which it is mixed, in contrast to a dye which is soluble.
The activity of carmines can vary widely depending on their preparation and composition: they tend to be unstable and can vary in solubility depending on pH.
Recipes for artists' use of crimson appear in many early painting and alchemical handbooks throughout the Middle Ages.

Red lake pigments were known to be particularly unstable as early as the 1400s.
When cochineal lakes were introduced in Europe, artists soon found that they were not light-fast.
The paint turns brown and fades in sunlight, although it is somewhat more permanent if mixed with oil rather than water color.

As a result, carmine's use as a pigment was discouraged: Cochineal's primary use was as a dye rather than in paints.
Beautiful and rich as are the colours prepared from cochineal, not one of them should ever find a place upon the palette of the artist.
They all become brownish and ultimately almost disappear after a short exposure to sunlight or the more prolonged attack of strong diffused daylight.

A LONG HISTORY OF USE of COCHINEAL:
The use of this pigment is ancient – cochineal is native to the Americas and known by many pre-Columbian cultures like the Mayas, Aztecs, and Incas (learn more about the history here).
There is evidence of its use in textiles as early as 2000 BCE.
The processed form of the pigment, carmine, was exported to Europe during the renaissance and commercialized at astronomical prices, replacing another insect derived red pigment called Crimson.
Cochineal was used in paintings by famous artists like Tintoretto, Vermeer, Rembrandt, and Velazquez.

To obtain the colour Cochineal, the insects are “farmed” on the surface of nopales, or cactuses – seen in the below image – where they grow feeding exclusively from sap.
Once the females are mature, they are harvested and the dye is extracted using hot water.
It is further processed to purify, isolate, and formulate Cochinealfor its diverse uses: as a solid lake, or as a water-soluble dye.
The industrial use of these colours has helped to develop sustainable productive models for indigenous people in South and Mesoamerica and to fight desertification by promoting the cultivation of the cacti in drylands.

Cochineal is one of the few natural and water-soluble colorants that resist degradation with time.
Cochineal is the most light- and heat-stable and oxidation-resistant of all the natural colorants and is even more stable than some synthetic food colours.

Cochineal it is neither toxic nor known to be carcinogenic.
However, Cochineal can induce an anaphylactic-shock reaction in a small number of people, due to impurities in the preparation, not due to the carminic acid.

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES of COCHINEAL:
Cochineal typically appears as a dark red to deep brown powder or granular material.
Cochineal is generally odorless or may have a faint organic odor.
Cochineal is partially soluble in water, forming a red solution, while full solubility depends on processing and purity.
Cochineal is more soluble in alkaline solutions due to the ionization of carminic acid.

As a natural mixture, cochineal contains carminic acid along with proteins, lipids, and inorganic salts.
Cochineal's chemical behavior is largely governed by carminic acid, which is an anthraquinone derivative.
Cochineal exhibits pH-dependent color variation, appearing orange-red in acidic conditions and shifting toward purple or violet in alkaline environments.

Cochineal shows moderate stability to heat and light compared to other natural dyes, but prolonged exposure to UV radiation, high temperatures, or oxidizing conditions can lead to degradation and fading.
The stability improves when converted into metal complexes (carmine).

CHARACTERISTICS AND PROPERTIES of COCHINEAL:
Cochineal is valued for its strong coloring ability and natural origin.
Cochineal provides a wide range of red shades depending on formulation conditions such as pH, concentration, and presence of metal ions.
Cochineal is biodegradable and derived from renewable biological sources.

Cochineal has relatively good compatibility with aqueous systems and emulsions.
However, Cochineal's composition may vary depending on the source and extraction method, which can influence color intensity and stability.
The presence of proteins in raw cochineal may contribute to allergenic potential.

THE HISTORICAL PROCESS of COCHINEAL:
Carmine pigment was produced by indigenous peoples living in Mexico and Central America in ancient times.
Cochineal insects found on "Opuntia" cacti in these regions were the primary source of carmine pigment.
Carmine pigment, due to its origins in Spanish conquests and trade, was later adopted by other European countries.

This pigment was used in many different applications, such as fabric dyeing, painting, and writing inks.
Cochineal enjoyed great popularity in Europe and other regions for centuries.
Cochineal became a preferred coloring agent, especially in the textile dyeing industry and in the work of painters.

Cochineal became one of the most coveted products in the commercial world.
Cochineal was Mexico's second most valuable export after silver.
With the development of chemistry in the 19th century, the use of synthetic dyes increased and they began to be used in industrial-scale coloring processes, replacing the natural carmine pigment.
Today, Cochineal is still used as a natural colorant in some food products, cosmetics, and the textile industry.

Cochineal is one of the oldest pigments used in the Americas, dating back to as early as the second century BC.
Cochineal's red was symbolic of the gods, sun and blood, and employed in rituals of the Maya and Aztec peoples who traded it throughout Central and South America.

Indigenous people in the Mexican regions of Puebla, Tlaxcala and Oaxaca had systems for breeding and engineering cochineal insects for ideal traits to produce red paint pigments for coloring manuscripts and murals, and to dye cloth and feathers.
Following the Spanish invasion, Cochineal was traded around the world, and its production became an industry that relied entirely on the expertise and labor of Indigenous Mexicans, though they were never acknowledged for it.

BENEFITS of COCHINEAL:
Cochineal offers several benefits, including its natural origin, high tinctorial strength, and relatively good stability compared to many plant-based red dyes.
Cochineal is effective at low concentrations and provides consistent coloration across different applications.
Cochineal aligns with consumer demand for natural additives and can replace synthetic dyes in many formulations.
Additionally, Cochineal's ability to form stable derivatives (such as carmine) enhances its versatility.

SAFETY AND USAGE of COCHINEAL:
Cochineal is generally regarded as safe when used within regulatory limits.
However, Cochineal is known to cause allergic reactions in some individuals.
These reactions may include skin irritation, respiratory symptoms, or, in rare cases, severe allergic responses such as anaphylaxis.

Due to its insect origin, cochineal may not be acceptable for vegetarians, vegans, or individuals with certain dietary or religious restrictions.
Regulatory authorities often require labeling to indicate Cochineal's presence in food and cosmetic products.

From a handling perspective, exposure to dust should be minimized in industrial settings, and appropriate protective equipment should be used.
Cochineal should be stored in a cool, dry place, protected from light and moisture to maintain stability.

ETYMOLOGY of COCHINEAL:
The noun is borrowed from Middle French cochenille (modern French cochenille), from Italian cocciniglia or Spanish cochinilla; further etymology uncertain, possibly from Latin coccineus, coccinus (“scarlet-dyed; scarlet in colour”) (whence Italian coccineo (“scarlet in colour”)) + Italian -iglia (suffix forming collective nouns), Spanish -illa (“diminutive suffix”).
Coccinus is derived from Ancient Greek κόκκῐνος (kókkĭnos, “scarlet; (figurative) blushing”, adjective), from κόκκος (kókkos, “kermes oak (Quercus coccifera); insect of the genus Kermes living on the oak; scarlet dye made from crushed kermes insects”) (possibly from Pre-Greek) + -ῐνος (-ĭnos, suffix forming adjectives).

According to the Oxford English Dictionary, cochineal is not derived from Spanish cochinilla (“pill bug, especially the common pill bug (Armadillidium vulgare)”), a diminutive of cochina (“female pig, sow”) (from the animal’s shape), which coincidentally has the same spelling as cochinilla (“cochineal”).
The adjective is derived from the noun.

Cochineal dye was once one of the most important colorants in the world.
Hundreds of tons of it were exported from the New World for use throughout Europe, yet now, in today’s age, it would be rare for someone to even know what “cochineal” is.

HISTORY of COCHINEAL:
Cochineal was already used as a colour by the Aztec and Maya peoples of Central and North America.
Cochineal was a commodity of much value, even comparable to gold.
Cities send bags of cochineal to the capital Tenochtitlán as a yearly contribute to the emperor.

The Spanish conquerors of Central America saw the value of the dye, which produced a much better colour than the dyes used in Europe at the time.
The dye, which at the time was mainly used in cosmetics and textiles and to a lesser extend in foods, became very popular in Europe.
Roman Catholic Cardinals robes were coloured with cochineal, as were the jackets of the British military.

Cochineal was a highly prized product and was regularly traded on the London and Amsterdam Commodity Exchanges.
As its origins were not known to most Europeans, the American colonists bought their cochineal from Europe, instead directly from Mexico.
In the 19th century the insects were imported and grown on a large scale on the Canary Islands and the Mexican monopoly came to an end.

In 1868, the Canary Islands exported six million pounds of cochineal, equivalent to 420.000.000.000 insects.
In addition as a dye for textiles, cochineal became widely used as a food colouring.
Cakes, cookies, beverages, jam, jelly, ice cream, sausages, pies, dried fish, yogurt, cider, maraschino cherries and tomato products were brightened with it as were chewing gum, pills and cough drops.

Cosmetic rouge was developed with cochineal as the main ingredient.
Cochineal is still widely used in cosmetics.

The demand for cochineal fell sharply with the appearance on the market of alizarin crimson and many other artificial (food and textile) dyes discovered in Europe in the middle of the 19th century.
Trade in cochineal almost totally disappeared in the course of the 20th century, but in recent years Cochineal has become commercially valuable again as many producers (and consumers) prefer natural colours over synthetic colours.

However, most consumers are unaware that the ‘natural colouring E120' refers to a dye that is derived from an insect.
Cochineal is thus not suitable for vegetarians.

PREPARATION of COCHINEAL:
Cochineal dyes are one of three groups of red insect dyes, all of which are anthraquinone derivatives.
The major color components in their respective chemical structures are carminic acid (in cochineal dyes), kermesic acid (in kermes dye) and laccaic acids (in lac dye).

Carminic acid is extracted from the female cochineal insects and is treated to produce carmine, which can yield shades of red such as crimson and scarlet.
The dried body of the female insect is 14–26% carminic acid.
Workers collect the female cochineal insects from their host plants.

The insects are killed by immersion in hot water or by exposure to sunlight, steam, or the heat of an oven.
Each method produces a different color that results in the varied appearance of commercial cochineal.

The insects must be dried to about 30% of their original body weight before they can be stored without decaying.
It takes about 70,000 insects to make 1 pound (0.45 kilograms) of cochineal dye.

The two principal forms of cochineal dye are cochineal extract, a coloring made from the raw dried and pulverised bodies of insects, and carmine, a more purified coloring made from the cochineal.
To prepare carmine, the powdered insect bodies are boiled in ammonia or a sodium carbonate solution, the insoluble matter is removed by filtering, and alum is added to the clear salt solution of carminic acid to precipitate the red aluminium salt.

Purity of color is ensured by the absence of iron.
Stannous chloride, citric acid, borax, or gelatin may be added to regulate the formation of the precipitate.
For shades of purple, lime is added to the alum.

HISTORY of COCHINEAL:
Pre-Columbian dye
Traditionally, cochineal was used by Indigenous peoples of Mesoamerica, including Mixtec, Zapotec, Aztec, and Otomi cultures, for coloring fabrics and amate paper.
Cochineal dye was used as early as the second century BC.
People began to paint codices with cochineal as early as the thirteenth century.

Although cochineal could be harvested from wild species, people began to intentionally grow cochineal in gardens.
This semi-domesticated species had more dye, which made it more valuable to artists.

Cochineal's importance in Mesoamerica is indicated by its prominence in tribute lists such as the Matrícula de Tributos.
Eleven towns in the Oaxacan province of Coixtlahuaca, conquered by the Aztec Empire in the 15th century, paid a yearly tribute of 2000 decorated cotton blankets and 40 bags of cochineal dye each.
One of these towns was called Nochistlan (today Asuncion Nochixtlan, after the Nahuatl term for cochineal, "nocheztli").

Inhabitants of Peru have been producing cochineal dyes for textiles since early in the Middle Horizon period (600–1000 CE).
Cochineal dye was extensively used in the Pre-Columbian era, often for ceremonial textiles and those worn by rulers.

Cochineal bonds best with animal fibers rather than plant fibers and was most effective for dyeing wool from alpacas and other Camelidae, rabbit fur, and feathers.
Cochineal was also used on cottons and plant-based fabrics, to less effect.

Some examples of early cloth have survived in extremely dry areas in Peru.
In addition, the use of cochineal is illustrated in drawings on codices and maps.
Production of cochineal dyes became well-developed under Nazca culture, and beautiful examples of woven cloth colored by cochineal remain from Moche and Wari culture.

PRODUCTION of COCHINEAL:
In 1777, French botanist Nicolas-Joseph Thiéry de Menonville, presenting himself as a botanizing physician, smuggled the insects and pads of the Opuntia cactus to Saint Domingue.
This particular collection failed to thrive and ultimately died out, leaving the Mexican monopoly intact.
After the Mexican War of Independence in 1810–1821, the Mexican monopoly on cochineal came to an end.
Large-scale production of cochineal emerged, especially in Guatemala and the Canary Islands; it was also cultivated in Spain and North Africa.

COMPETITION FROM ARTIFICIAL DYES of COCHINEAL:
The demand for cochineal fell sharply in the middle of the 19th century, with the appearance of artificial dyes such as alizarin crimson.
This caused a significant financial shock in Spain as a major industry almost ceased to exist.
The delicate manual labour required for the breeding of the insect could not compete with the modern methods of the new industry, and even less so with the lowering of production costs.

The "tuna blood" dye (from the Mexican name for the Opuntia fruit) stopped being used and trade in cochineal almost totally disappeared in the course of the 20th century.
For a time, the breeding of cochineal was done mainly for the purposes of maintaining the tradition rather than to satisfy any sort of demand.
However, the product has become commercially valuable again.

One reason for the increasing interest in natural dyes is consumer concern over the possibility that some commercial synthetic red dyes and food colorings may be carcinogenic.
Being natural is not a guarantee of safety, but studies show that cochineal is neither carcinogenic nor toxic.
Cochineal does, however, have a slight potential to trigger an allergic reaction.

COMPARABLE COLORS of COCHINEAL:
In Europe, there was no comparable red dye or pigment.
The closest color was Kermes (technically, crimson), one of the oldest organic pigments.
Cochineal's key ingredient, kermesic acid, was also extracted from an insect, Kermes vermilio, which lives on Quercus coccifera oaks native to the Near East, and the European side of the Mediterranean Basin.
Kermes was used as a dye and a laked pigment in ancient Egypt, Greece, Armenia and the Near East.

COLONIAL PRODUCTION EXPORT of COCHINEAL:
The Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in the 16th century introduced new colors to peoples on both sides of the Atlantic.
The Spanish were quick to exploit the vibrant, intense color of cochineal for new trade opportunities.
Carmine attained great status and value in Europe.

Cochineal was intentionally cultivated for export in many regions of Mesoamerica but was especially important in Tlaxcala, Puebla, and Oaxaca.
During the colonial period, with the introduction of sheep to Latin America, cochineal gained another important use.
It provided the most intense color and it set more firmly on woolen garments compared to clothes made of materials of pre-Hispanic origin such as cotton or agave and yucca fibers.

In general, cochineal is more successful on protein-based animal fibres (including silk) than plant-based material.
Once the European market discovered the qualities of this product (grana fina), the demand for it increased dramatically.

Carmine became the region's second-most-valuable export next to silver.
The dyestuff was used throughout Europe and was so highly prized, its price was regularly quoted on the London and Amsterdam Commodity Exchanges (with the latter one beginning to record it in 1589).
By the 17th century cochineal was a commodity traded as far away as India.

ETYMOLOGY of COCHINEAL:
The word cochineal is derived from the French cochenille, derived from Spanish cochinilla, in turn derived from Latin coccinus, from Greek κόκκινος kokkinos, "scarlet" from κόκκος kokkos (Latin equivalent coccum) referring in this case either to the oak berry (actually galls formed by the scale insects of the unrelated genus Kermes) or to a red dye made from the crushed bodies thereof.
The related in sense word kermes also refers to the source of the red Mediterranean dye also called crimson, which was used in Europe to color cloth red before cochineal was imported from the New World to Spain in the 1520s.
Some sources identify the Spanish source word cochinilla as the word for "wood louse", which is a diminutive form of cochino "pig".

DACTYLOPIUS COCCUS
LIFE CYCLE
Cochineal insects are soft-bodied, flat, oval-shaped scale insects.
The females, wingless and about 5 mm (0.20 in) long, cluster on cactus pads.
They penetrate the cactus with their beak-like mouthparts and feed on its juices, remaining immobile unless alarmed.

After mating, the fertilised female increases in size and gives birth to tiny nymphs.
The nymphs secrete a waxy white substance over their bodies for protection from water loss and excessive sun.

This substance makes the cochineal insect appear white or grey from the outside, though the body of the insect and its nymphs produces the red pigment, which makes the insides of the insect look dark purple.
Adult males can be distinguished from females in that males have wings, and are much smaller.
The cochineal disperses in the first nymph stage, called the "crawler" stage.

The juveniles move to a feeding spot and produce long wax filaments.
Later, they move to the edge of the cactus pad, where the wind catches the wax filaments and carries the insects to a new host.
These individuals establish feeding sites on the new host and produce a new generation of cochineals.

Male nymphs feed on the cactus until they reach sexual maturity.
At this time, they can no longer feed at all and live only long enough to fertilise the eggs.

They are, therefore, seldom observed.
In addition, females typically outnumber males due to environmental factors.

HOST CACTI
Dactylopius coccus is native to tropical and subtropical South America and North America in Mexico, where their host cacti grow natively.
They have been widely introduced to many regions where their host cacti also grow.
About 200 species of Opuntia cacti are known, and while cultivating cochineal on almost all of them is possible, the most common is Opuntia ficus-indica.

D. coccus has only been noted on Opuntia species, including O. amyclaea, O. atropes, O. cantabrigiensis, O. brasilienis, O. ficus-indica, O. fuliginosa, O. jaliscana, O. leucotricha, O. lindheimeri, O. microdasys, O. megacantha, O. pilifera, O. robusta, O. sarca, O. schikendantzii, O. stricta, O. streptacantha, and O. tomentosa.
Feeding cochineals can damage and kill the plant.
Other cochineal species feed on many of the same Opuntia, and the wide range of hosts reported for D. coccus likely is because of the difficulty in distinguishing it from other Dactylopius species.

PREDATION
Several natural enemies can reduce the population of the insects on hosts.
Of all the predators, insects seem to be the most important group.
Insects and their larvae such as pyralid moths (order Lepidoptera), which destroy the cactus, and predators such as lady bugs (Coleoptera), various Diptera (such as Syrphidae and Chamaemyiidae), lacewings (Neuroptera), and ants (Hymenoptera) have been identified, as well as numerous parasitic wasps.
Many birds, human-commensal, rodents (especially rats), and reptiles, also prey on cochineal insects.

FARMING of COCHINEAL:
A nopal cactus farm for the production of cochineal is traditionally known as a nopalry.
The two methods of farming cochineal are traditional and controlled.
Cochineals are farmed in the traditional method by planting infected cactus pads or infesting existing cacti with cochineals and harvesting the insects by hand.

The controlled method uses small baskets called Zapotec nests placed on host cacti.
The baskets contain clean, fertile females that leave the nests and settle on the cactus to await fertilization by the males.

In both cases, the cochineals must be protected from predation, cold, and rain.
The complete cycle lasts three months, during which time the cacti are kept at a constant temperature of 27 °C (81 °F).
At the end of the cycle, the new cochineals are left to reproduce or are collected and dried for dye production.

To produce dye from cochineals, the insects are collected when they are around 90 days old.
Harvesting the insects is labour-intensive, as they must be individually knocked, brushed, or picked from the cacti and placed into bags.
The insects are gathered by small groups of collectors who sell them to local processors or exporters.

In regions dependent on cochineal production, pest control measures are taken seriously.
For small-scale cultivation, manual methods of control have proved to be the safest and most effective.
For large-scale cultivation, advanced pest control methods have to be developed, including alternative bioinsecticides or traps with pheromones.

FAILED FARMING IN AUSTRALIA
Opuntia species, known commonly as prickly pears, were first brought to Australia in an attempt to start a cochineal dye industry in 1788.
Captain Arthur Phillip collected a number of cochineal-infested plants from Brazil on his way to establish the first European settlement at Botany Bay, part of which is now Sydney, New South Wales.
At that time, Spain and Portugal had a worldwide cochineal dye monopoly via their New World colonial sources, and the British desired a source under their own control, as the dye was important to their clothing and garment industries; it was used to color the British soldiers' red coats, for example.
The attempt was a failure in two ways: the Brazilian cochineal insects soon died off, but the cacti thrived, eventually overrunning about 100,000 sq mi (259,000 km2) of eastern Australia.
The cacti were eventually brought under control in the 1920s by the deliberate introduction of a South American moth, Cactoblastis cactorum, the larvae of which feed on the cactus.

PHYSICAL and CHEMICAL PROPERTIES of COCHINEAL:
Melting point 298–300 °C (568–572 °F; 571–573 K)
Solubility in water insoluble < pH 11
CAS Number 1390-65-4
ChemSpider 28296172
ECHA InfoCard 100.014.295 Edit this at Wikidata
E number E120 (colours)
Molecular Weight 492.4 g/mol
XLogP3-AA 0.5
Hydrogen Bond Donor Count 9
Hydrogen Bond Acceptor Count 13

Rotatable Bond Count 3
Exact Mass 492.09039069 Da
Monoisotopic Mass 492.09039069 Da
Topological Polar Surface Area 243 Ų
Heavy Atom Count 35
Formal Charge 0
Complexity 864
Isotope Atom Count 0
Defined Atom Stereocenter Count 5
Undefined Atom Stereocenter Count 0
Defined Bond Stereocenter Count 0

Undefined Bond Stereocenter Count 0
Covalently-Bonded Unit Count 1
Compound Is Canonicalized Yes
Appearance: Dark red to crimson powder or granular solid
Odor: Slight, characteristic
Odor threshold: Not available
pH: ~4.5 – 7.0 (aqueous solution, varies with processing)
Melting point / Freezing point: Not applicable (decomposes)

Initial boiling point and boiling range: Not applicable
Flash point: Not applicable (non-volatile solid)
Evaporation rate: Not applicable
Flammability (solid): Not highly flammable, but combustible under fire conditions
Upper/lower flammability or explosive limits: Not determined
Vapor pressure: Negligible
Vapor density: Not applicable
Relative density: ~1.5 – 1.7 (typical bulk estimate; varies)

Solubility:
Water: Soluble (forms red solution)
Organic solvents: Limited solubility
Partition coefficient (n-octanol/water): Not available (mixture)
Auto-ignition temperature: Not determined
Decomposition temperature: > 200 °C (approx., depends on composition)
Viscosity: Not applicable (solid)
Explosive properties: Not explosive
Oxidizing properties: Not oxidizing

FIRST AID MEASURES of COCHINEAL:
-Description of first-aid measures
*General advice:
Show this material safety data sheet to the doctor in attendance.
*If inhaled:
After inhalation: 
Fresh air.
*In case of skin contact: 
Take off immediately all contaminated clothing. 
Rinse skin with
water/ shower.
*In case of eye contact:
After eye contact: 
Rinse out with plenty of water. 
Call in ophthalmologist. 
Remove contact lenses.
*If swallowed:
After swallowing: 
Immediately make victim drink water (two glasses at most). 
Consult a physician.
-Indication of any immediate medical attention and special treatment needed.
No data available

ACCIDENTAL RELEASE MEASURES of COCHINEAL:
-Environmental precautions:
Do not let product enter drains.
-Methods and materials for containment and cleaning up:
Cover drains. 
Collect, bind, and pump off spills. 
Observe possible material restrictions. 
Take up dry. 
Dispose of properly. 
Clean up affected area.

FIRE FIGHTING MEASURES of COCHINEAL:
-Extinguishing media:
*Suitable extinguishing media:
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 
Foam 
Dry powder
*Unsuitable extinguishing media:
For this substance/mixture no limitations of extinguishing agents are given.
-Further information:
Prevent fire extinguishing water from contaminating surface water or the ground water system.

EXPOSURE CONTROLS/PERSONAL PROTECTION of COCHINEAL:
-Control parameters:
--Ingredients with workplace control parameters:
-Exposure controls:
--Personal protective equipment:
*Eye/face protection:
Use equipment for eye protection. 
Safety glasses
*Body Protection:
protective clothing
*Respiratory protection:
Recommended Filter type: Filter A 
-Control of environmental exposure:
Do not let product enter drains.

HANDLING and STORAGE of COCHINEAL:
-Conditions for safe storage, including any incompatibilities:
*Storage conditions:
Tightly closed. 
Dry.

STABILITY and REACTIVITY of COCHINEAL:
-Chemical stability:
The product is chemically stable under standard ambient conditions (room temperature).
-Possibility of hazardous reactions:
No data available