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VITAMIN B12

Vitamin B-12 (cobalamin) plays an essential role in red blood cell formation, cell metabolism, nerve function and the production of DNA, the molecules inside cells that carry genetic information.
Vitamin B12, also known as cobalamin, is a water-soluble vitamin involved in metabolism.
Vitamin B12 is required by animals, which use it as a cofactor in DNA synthesis, and in both fatty acid and amino acid metabolism.

CAS Number: 13408-78-1
Molecular Formula: C63H88CoN14O14P
Molecular Weight: 1355.37
EINECS Number: 236-500-2

Synonyms: vitamin B12, cyanocobalamin, 68-19-9, Cyanocob(III)alamin, DTXCID5024346, MFCD00151092, Cobalamin (1+), Cyanocobalamin;Cyanocob(III)alamin, CAS-68-19-9, NCGC00016302-01, DTXSID7044346, Prestwick_564, Vitamin B12 NOS, Vitamin B12 (charged), 13408-78-1, HMS1569G08, HMS2096G08, HMS3713G08, Tox21_110358, Tox21_113664, AKOS015894306, AKOS037515760, CCG-220433, DB00115, NCGC00249888-01, EN300-24780894, Q55167869, Cobinamide,dihydrogenphosphate(ester),inner salt,3'-ester with(5,6-Dimethyl-1-a-d-ribofuranosyl-1H-benzimidazole-kn3),ion(1+)(9ci), VIT B12;A-(5,6-DIMETHYLBENZIMIDAZOLYL)COBAMIDE CYANIDE;ANTIANEMIC VITAMIN B;ALPHA-(5,6-DIMETHYLBENZIMIDAZOLYL)CYANOCOBAMIDE;METHYLCOBALAMIN;CYTACON;CYTAMEN;CYANOCOBALAMINE

Vitamin B12, also known as cobalamin, is a water-soluble vitamin that plays a crucial role in various vital bodily functions, most notably in the production of red blood cells, the synthesis of DNA, and the functioning of the nervous system.
Vitamin B12 is one of the eight B vitamins, and unlike most other vitamins, it contains a metal ion (cobalt) at its core, which is responsible for its name.
Vitamin B12 is unique in that it is only found naturally in animal-derived foods such as meat, fish, dairy products, and eggs, making it particularly important for individuals following vegetarian or vegan diets to find alternative sources or supplements.

Vitamin B12 is important in the normal functioning of the nervous system via its role in the synthesis of myelin, and in the circulatory system in the maturation of red blood cells in the bone marrow.
Plants do not need cobalamin and carry out the reactions with enzymes that are not dependent on it.
It is one of eight B vitamins.

Vitamin B12 is the most chemically complex of all vitamins, and for humans the only vitamin that must be sourced from animal-derived foods or supplements.
Only some archaea and bacteria can synthesize vitamin B12.
Vitamin B12 deficiency is a widespread condition that is particularly prevalent in populations with low or no consumption of animal foods.

Such diets can be due to a variety of reasons, such as low socioeconomic status or personal choice (i.e., veganism, vegetarianism).
Foods containing vitamin B12 include meat, shellfish, liver, fish, poultry, eggs, and dairy products.
Many breakfast cereals are fortified with the vitamin.

Supplements and medications are available to treat and prevent vitamin B12 deficiency.
They are usually taken by mouth, but for the treatment of deficiency may also be given as an intramuscular injection.
Vitamin B12 deficiencies have a greater effect on young children, pregnant and elderly people, and are more common in middle and lower-developed countries due to malnutrition.

The most common cause of vitamin B12 deficiency in developed countries is impaired absorption due to a loss of gastric intrinsic factor (IF) which must be bound to a food source of B12 for absorption to occur.
A second major cause is an age-related decline in stomach acid production (achlorhydria), because acid exposure frees protein-bound vitamin.
For the same reason, people on long-term antacid therapy, using proton-pump inhibitors, H2 blockers or other antacids are at increased risk.

The diets of vegetarians and vegans may not provide sufficient B12 unless a dietary supplement is taken.
A deficiency may be characterized by limb neuropathy or a blood disorder called pernicious anemia, a type of anemia in which red blood cells become abnormally large.
This can result in fatigue, decreased ability to think, lightheadedness, shortness of breath, frequent infections, poor appetite, numbness in the hands and feet, depression, memory loss, confusion, difficulty walking, blurred vision, irreversible nerve damage, and many others.

If left untreated in infants, deficiency may lead to neurological damage and anemia.
Folate levels in the individual may affect the course of pathological changes and symptomatology of vitamin B12 deficiency.
Vitamin B12 deficiency in pregnant women is strongly associated with an increased risk of spontaneous abortion, congenital malformations such as neural tube defects, and problems with brain development growth in the unborn child.

Vitamin B12 was discovered as a result of pernicious anemia, an autoimmune disorder in which the blood has a lower than normal number of red blood cells, due to a deficiency of vitamin B12.
The ability to absorb the vitamin declines with age, especially in people over 60.
Vitamin B12 is an important nutrient for body.

Vitamin B12 helps keep your body’s nerve and blood cells healthy.
It also keeps your nervous system working properly. Vitamin B12 is found naturally in some foods and is added to other fortified foods.
A cobalamin in which the central cobalt atom has an oxidation state of +3.

Vitamin B12 is a coordination complex of cobalt, which occupies the center of a corrin ligand and is further bound to a benzimidazole ligand and adenosyl group.
Several related species are known and these behave similarly, in particular, all function as vitamins.
This collection of compounds is sometimes referred to as "cobalamins".

These chemical compounds have a similar molecular structure, each of which shows vitamin activity in a vitamin-deficient biological system, they are referred to as vitamers. The vitamin activity is as a coenzyme, meaning that its presence is required for some enzyme-catalyzed reactions.
Vitamin B12 is produced in nature by certain bacteria, and archaea.

Vitamin B12 is synthesized by some bacteria in the gut microbiota in humans and other animals, but it has long been thought that humans cannot absorb this as it is made in the colon, downstream from the small intestine, where the absorption of most nutrients occurs.
Ruminants, such as cows and sheep, are foregut fermenters, meaning that plant food undergoes microbial fermentation in the rumen before entering the true stomach (abomasum), and thus they are absorbing vitamin B12 produced by bacteria.

Other mammalian species (examples: rabbits, pikas, beaver, guinea pigs) consume high-fiber plants which pass through the gastrointestinal tract and undergo bacterial fermentation in the cecum and large intestine.
In this hindgut fermentation, the material from the cecum is expelled as "cecotropes" and are re-ingested, a practice referred to as cecotrophy.
Re-ingestion allows for absorption of nutrients made available by bacterial fermentation, and also of vitamins and other nutrients synthesized by the gut bacteria, including vitamin B12.

Non-ruminant, non-hindgut herbivores may have an enlarged forestomach and/or small intestine to provide a place for bacterial fermentation and B-vitamin production, including B12.
For gut bacteria to produce vitamin B12, the animal must consume sufficient amounts of cobalt.
Soil that is deficient in cobalt may result in B12 deficiency, and B12 injections or cobalt supplementation may be required for livestock.

Animals store vitamin B12 from their diets in their livers and muscles and some pass the vitamin into their eggs and milk.
Meat, liver, eggs, and milk are therefore sources of the vitamin for other animals, including humans.
For humans, the bioavailability from eggs is less than 9%, compared to 40% to 60% from fish, fowl, and meat.

Insects are a source of B12 for animals (including other insects and humans).
Animal-derived food sources with a high concentration of vitamin B12 include liver and other organ meats from lamb, veal, beef, and turkey; also shellfish and crab meat.
There is some evidence that bacterial fermentation of plant foods and symbiotic relationships between algae and bacteria can provide vitamin B12.

However, the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics considers plant and algae sources "unreliable", stating that vegans should turn to fortified foods and supplements instead.
Natural plant and algae sources of vitamin B12 include fermented plant foods such as tempeh and seaweed-derived foods such as nori and laverbread.
Methylcobalamin has been identified in Chlorella vulgaris.

Since only bacteria and some archea possess the genes and enzymes necessary to synthesize vitamin B12, plant and algae sources all obtain the vitamin secondarily from symbiosis with various species of bacteria, or in the case of fermented plant foods, from bacterial fermentation.
Pseudovitamin B12 is the majority corrinoid in spirulina, an algal health food sometimes erroneously claimed as having vitamin activity.
Vitamin B12 is included in multivitamin pills; in some countries grain-based foods, such as bread and pasta, are fortified with B12.

In the US, non-prescription products can be purchased providing up to 1,000 μg each, and it is a common ingredient in energy drinks and energy shots, usually at many times the recommended dietary allowance of B12.
The vitamin can also be supplied on prescription and delivered via injection or other means.
A vitamer methylcobalamin is available as a supplement.

The claimed advantage of such product is that methylcobalamin, unline cyanocobalamin, does not contain cyanide.
The metabolic fate and biological distribution of methylcobalamin are expected to be similar to that of other sources of vitamin B12 in the diet.
The amount of cyanide in cyanocobalamin is generally not a concern, even in the 1,000 μg dose, since the amount of cyanide there (20 μg in a 1,000 μg cyanocobalamin tablet) is less than the daily consumption of cyanide from food, and therefore cyanocobalamin is not considered a health risk.

Besides that, the efficacy of methylcobalamin administration in treating vitamin B12 deficiency remains uncertain. While directly providing active cobalamin forms to deficient patients is an attractive approach promoted by the manufacturers of methylcobalamin products, it is not known whether methylcobalamin can reach its intracellular targets in its original, unmodified form to function effectively as ready coenzyme.
It is also not known whether current level of evidence sufficient to recommend this relatively expensive strategy as an alternative to cyanocobalamin or hydroxocobalamin.

There is currently insufficient evidence on comparative effectiveness and safety of various B12 vitamers (methylcobalamin, cyancobalamin, hydroxocobalamin, adenosylcobalamin).
Vitamin B12 is a water-soluble vitamin that is naturally present in some foods, added to others, and available as a dietary supplement and a prescription medication.
Because vitamin B12 contains the mineral cobalt, compounds with vitamin B12 activity are collectively called cobalamins.

Methylcobalamin and 5-deoxyadenosylcobalamin are the metabolically active forms of vitamin B12.
However, two others forms, hydroxycobalamin and cyanocobalamin, become biologically active after they are converted to methylcobalamin or 5-deoxyadenosylcobalamin.
Vitamin B12 is required for the development, myelination, and function of the central nervous system; healthy red blood cell formation; and DNA synthesis.

Vitamin B12 functions as a cofactor for two enzymes, methionine synthase and L-methylmalonyl-CoA mutase.
Methionine synthase catalyzes the conversion of homocysteine to the essential amino acid methionine.
Methionine is required for the formation of S-adenosylmethionine, a universal methyl donor for almost 100 different substrates, including DNA, RNA, proteins, and lipids.

L-methylmalonyl-CoA mutase converts L-methylmalonyl-CoA to succinyl-CoA in the metabolism of propionate, a short-chain fatty acid.
Vitamin B12 is bound to protein in food and must be released before it is absorbed.
The process starts in the mouth when food is mixed with saliva.

The freed vitamin B12 then binds with haptocorrin, a cobalamin-binding protein in the saliva.
More vitamin B12 is released from its food matrix by the activity of hydrochloric acid and gastric protease in the stomach, where it then binds to haptocorrin.
In the duodenum, digestive enzymes free the vitamin B12 from haptocorrin, and this freed vitamin B12 combines with intrinsic factor, a transport and delivery binding protein secreted by the stomach’s parietal cells.

The resulting complex is absorbed in the distal ileum by receptor-mediated endocytosis.
If vitamin B12 is added to fortified foods and dietary supplements, it is already in free form and therefore does not require the separation step.
Vitamin B12 status is typically assessed by measurements of serum or plasma vitamin B12 levels.

The cutoff between normal vitamin B12 levels and deficiency varies by method and laboratory, but most laboratories define subnormal serum or plasma values as those lower than 200 or 250 pg/mL (148 or 185 pmol/L).
Levels of serum methylmalonic acid (MMA), a vitamin B12-associated metabolite, are the most sensitive markers of vitamin B12 status, and an MMA level greater than 0.271 micromol/L suggests vitamin B12 deficiency.

However, MMA levels also rise with renal insufficiency and tend to be higher in older adults.
Another marker is total plasma homocysteine levels, which rise quickly as vitamin B12 status declines; a serum homocysteine level higher than 15 micromol/L, for example, suggests vitamin B12 deficiency.
However, this indicator has poor specificity because it is influenced by other factors, such as low folate levels and, especially, by declines in kidney function.

Experts suggest that if a patient’s serum vitamin B12 level is between 150 to 399 pg/mL (111 to 294 pmol/L), the patient’s serum MMA levels should be checked to help confirm a diagnosis of vitamin B12 deficiency.
Vitamin B12 does a lot of good things for your body.
Vitamin B12 helps create DNA and red blood cells, for example.

It's also needed to develop your central nervous system (brain and spinal cord).
And it helps keep hair, nails, and skin healthy.
Since vitamin B12 contains the mineral cobalt, it's sometimes known as cobalamin.

Vitamin B12 is required for the function and development of many parts of the body, including the brain, nerves, and blood cells.
Methylcobalamin is the active form of vitamin B12. Cyanocobalamin, which must be processed by the body into the active form, is the most common type used in supplements.
People commonly use vitamin B12 for vitamin B12 deficiency, cyanide poisoning, and high levels of homocysteine in the blood.

Vitamin B12 is also used for canker sores, cataracts, Alzheimer disease, osteoporosis, fatigue, and many other conditions, but there is no good scientific evidence to support most of these other uses.
Vitamin B12 is a water-soluble vitamin.
Water-soluble vitamins dissolve in water.

After the body uses what it needs of these vitamins, leftover amounts leave the body through the urine.
Vitamin B12 deficiency is commonly associated with chronic stomach inflammation, which may contribute to an autoimmune vitamin B12 malabsorption syndrome called pernicious anemia and to a food-bound vitamin B12 malabsorption syndrome.
Impairment of vitamin B12 absorption can cause megaloblastic anemia and neurologic disorders in deficient subjects.

Vitamin B12 deficiency is a treatable condition that happens if aren't consuming enough vitamin B12 in your diet or if body isn't absorbing it properly.
Vitamin B12 deficiency can cause physical, neurological and psychological symptoms.
It can be treated with vitamin B12 medications.

Vitamin B12 is a water-soluble vitamin crucial in forming healthy red blood cells, maintaining cell metabolism and the functioning of the brain and nerve cells as well as synthesis of genetic materials like DNA.
Methylcobalamin is the metabolically active form of vitamin B12.

However, two other forms, Hydroxycobalamin and Cyanocobalamin, the most common type used in supplements, must be processed by the body into the biologically active forms.
Vitamin B12 is naturally found in animal food sources such as meat, fish, poultry and dairy products.

Vitamin B12 is sometimes fortified in other foods such as cereals or taken as a dietary supplement.
Vitamin B12 nasal sprays or injections are possible alternative treatments.

storage temp.: 2-8°C
NCI Dictionary of Cancer Terms: cobalamin
FDA UNI: 8406EY2OQA
NCI Drug Dictionary: cobalamin

Cyanocobalamin is a manufactured form of Vitamin B12.
Bacterial fermentation creates AdoB12 and MeB12, which are converted to cyanocobalamin by the addition of potassium cyanide in the presence of sodium nitrite and heat.
Once consumed, cyanocobalamin is converted to the biologically active AdoB12 and MeB12.

Vitamin B12 is the most common form used in dietary supplements and food fortification because cyanide stabilizes the molecule against degradation.
Vitamin B12 is also offered as a dietary supplement.
There is no advantage to the use of adenosylcobalamin or methylcobalamin forms for the treatment of vitamin B12 deficiency.

Hydroxocobalamin can be injected intramuscularly to treat vitamin B12 deficiency.
Vitamin B12 can also be injected intravenously for the purpose of treating cyanide poisoning, as the hydroxyl group is displaced by cyanide, creating a non-toxic cyanocobalamin that is excreted in urine.
Vitamin B12 deficiency can potentially cause severe and irreversible damage, especially to the brain and nervous system.

Deficiency at levels only slightly lower than normal can cause a range of symptoms such as fatigue, feeling weak, lightheadedness, dizziness, breathlessness, headaches, mouth ulcers, upset stomach, decreased appetite, difficulty walking (staggering balance problems), muscle weakness, depression, poor memory, poor reflexes, confusion, and pale skin, feeling abnormal sensations, among others, especially in people over age 60.
Vitamin B12 deficiency can also cause symptoms of mania and psychosis.

Among other problems, weakened immunity, reduced fertility and interruption of blood circulation in women may occur.
Vitamin B12 deficiency is most commonly caused by malabsorption, but can also result from low intake, immune gastritis, low presence of binding proteins, or use of certain medications.
Vegans—people who choose to not consume any animal-sourced foods—are at risk because plant-sourced foods do not contain the vitamin in sufficient amounts to prevent vitamin deficiency.

Vegetarians—people who consume animal byproducts such as dairy products and eggs, but not the flesh of any animal—are also at risk.
Vitamin B12 deficiency has been observed in between 40% and 80% of the vegetarian population who do not also take a vitamin B12 supplement or consume vitamin-fortified food.
In Hong Kong and India, vitamin B12 deficiency has been found in roughly 80% of the vegan population.

As with vegetarians, vegans can avoid this by consuming a dietary supplement or eating B12 fortified food such as cereal, plant-based milks, and nutritional yeast as a regular part of their diet.
The elderly are at increased risk because they tend to produce less stomach acid as they age, a condition known as achlorhydria, thereby increasing their probability of B12 deficiency due to reduced absorption.

Vitamin B12 is needed to release vitamin B12 from protein for absorption.
Reduced secretion of gastric acid and pepsin, from the use of H2 blocker or proton-pump inhibitor (PPI) drugs, can reduce the absorption of protein-bound (dietary) vitamin B12, although not of supplemental vitamin B12.
H2-receptor antagonist examples include cimetidine, famotidine, nizatidine, and ranitidine.

PPIs examples include omeprazole, lansoprazole, rabeprazole, pantoprazole, and esomeprazole.
Clinically significant vitamin B12 deficiency and megaloblastic anemia are unlikely, unless these drug therapies are prolonged for two or more years, or if in addition, the person's dietary intake is below recommended levels.
Symptomatic vitamin deficiency is more likely if the person is rendered achlorhydric (a complete absence of gastric acid secretion), which occurs more frequently with proton pump inhibitors than H2 blockers.

Vitamin B12 is the most chemically complex of all the vitamins.
The structure of B12 is based on a corrin ring, which is similar to the porphyrin ring found in heme.
The central metal ion is cobalt.

As isolated as an air-stable solid and available commercially, cobalt in vitamin B12 (cyanocobalamin and other vitamers) is present in its +3 oxidation state.
Biochemically, the cobalt center can take part in both two-electron and one-electron reductive processes to access the "reduced" (B12r, +2 oxidation state) and "super-reduced" (B12s, +1 oxidation state) forms.
The ability to shuttle between the +1, +2, and +3 oxidation states is responsible for the versatile chemistry of vitamin B12, allowing it to serve as a donor of deoxyadenosyl radical (radical alkyl source) and as a methyl cation equivalent (electrophilic alkyl source).

Vitamin B12 is its involvement in the metabolism of every cell in the body, particularly in the production of myelin, the protective sheath around nerve fibers that is crucial for proper nerve function.
A deficiency in Vitamin B12 can lead to a variety of neurological symptoms, including numbness, tingling, memory problems, and even more severe conditions like permanent nerve damage.
Additionally, it is essential for the production of red blood cells and the prevention of a type of anemia known as megaloblastic anemia, which causes fatigue, weakness, and pale skin.

Vitamin B12 is also involved in the metabolism of fatty acids and the synthesis of energy, making it essential for maintaining overall energy levels and vitality.
Vitamin B12 supports the production of homocysteine, an amino acid that, when in elevated levels, has been linked to cardiovascular diseases.
Maintaining adequate B12 levels helps ensure that homocysteine is kept in check, promoting a healthier heart.

Vitamin B12 is vital for cognitive function and mood regulation.
It has been linked to the prevention of depression and cognitive decline, as adequate levels of this vitamin are associated with maintaining brain health and supporting mental clarity.
Studies suggest that B12 deficiencies are linked to mood disorders such as depression and anxiety, particularly in older adults.

Since Vitamin B12 is not readily available in plant-based foods, individuals who do not consume animal products may be at higher risk for deficiency.
To prevent this, they may need to rely on B12-fortified foods or supplements to meet their nutritional needs.
In some cases, Vitamin B12 deficiencies can be identified through blood tests, and treatment typically involves dietary adjustments, oral supplements, or B12 injections for individuals with severe deficiencies.

Uses Of Vitamin B12:
Vitamin B12 is vital for cognitive function and mood regulation.
Vitamin B12 has been linked to the prevention of depression and cognitive decline, as adequate levels of this vitamin are associated with maintaining brain health and supporting mental clarity.
Studies suggest that B12 deficiencies are linked to mood disorders such as depression and anxiety, particularly in older adults.

Vitamin B12 is involved in DNA synthesis and cell division.
This is particularly important in tissues that undergo rapid cell turnover, such as those found in the digestive system and the skin.
Without sufficient B12, the body’s ability to produce new cells is impaired, leading to symptoms such as digestive issues and skin problems.

This is why Vitamin B12 is often included in treatments for conditions such as vitiligo, where the skin’s pigment cells are lost, and ulcers that affect the gastrointestinal tract.
Vitamin B12 also plays a critical role in energy production.
Vitamin B12 is involved in the metabolism of fats and carbohydrates, helping the body convert food into usable energy.

Through its role in the citric acid cycle, B12 helps break down fatty acids and amino acids, supporting the body’s ability to produce energy from food.
Individuals who are deficient in Vitamin B12 often experience fatigue and weakness, which can be alleviated by replenishing their B12 levels through dietary sources or supplements.
Vitamin B12 is essential for heart health because it helps regulate homocysteine levels in the blood.

Homocysteine is an amino acid that, when present in high levels, has been linked to an increased risk of cardiovascular diseases, including heart attack and stroke.
By converting homocysteine into other beneficial substances, Vitamin B12 helps protect the cardiovascular system, reducing the likelihood of heart-related conditions.
Vitamin B12 is also involved in mental health and mood regulation, as adequate levels of this vitamin have been associated with a decreased risk of developing depression and cognitive decline.

Studies have suggested that low levels of B12 can lead to symptoms of mood disorders, particularly in older adults.
Some research has even pointed to Vitamin B12 supplementation as a potential adjunct in the treatment of depression, particularly for individuals who have a deficiency of this vitamin.
In addition to its natural roles in metabolism, nerve function, and overall health, Vitamin B12 has practical applications in medical treatments.

Vitamin B12 is commonly used in the form of supplements or injections to address deficiencies, especially in individuals who have difficulty absorbing the vitamin from food due to conditions such as pernicious anemia, Crohn’s disease, or those who follow a vegan or vegetarian diet, which may lack natural B12 sources.
Supplementation helps restore B12 levels in the body and prevent the negative effects of deficiency, such as neurological damage and anemia.
Vitamin B12 is essential for numerous bodily functions, ranging from the production of red blood cells and the maintenance of a healthy nervous system to supporting energy metabolism and cardiovascular health.

Vitamin B12s versatile uses in the body emphasize its critical importance in maintaining optimal health, and supplementation or dietary intake is crucial for individuals at risk of deficiency.
Vitamin B12 also plays an important part in mood regulation and mental well-being.
Studies have shown that inadequate levels of Vitamin B12 can contribute to depression, anxiety, and irritability, with some research suggesting that supplementation may help improve mood in individuals with low B12 levels.

This is likely due to Vitamin B12’s influence on the production of neurotransmitters, such as serotonin and dopamine, which are key in regulating mood, behavior, and emotions.
For individuals struggling with mood disorders, addressing Vitamin B12 deficiency may provide an additional avenue for treatment, alongside traditional therapies and medications.
Furthermore, Vitamin B12 plays an essential role in homocysteine metabolism.

Elevated homocysteine levels are a known risk factor for cardiovascular diseases and stroke, as they can damage blood vessel walls and increase the likelihood of plaque buildup.
Vitamin B12, together with other B vitamins such as folate and B6, helps convert homocysteine into other substances, reducing the risk of vascular damage and improving overall heart health.
By maintaining appropriate levels of these nutrients, individuals can reduce the risk of developing conditions like arteriosclerosis (hardening of the arteries), which could ultimately lead to heart attacks and other cardiovascular issues.

Vitamin B12 is also involved in cognitive function and brain health, especially as we age.
Vitamin B12 has been linked to the maintenance of memory, focus, and concentration, with low levels of Vitamin B12 being associated with cognitive decline and an increased risk of dementia in older adults.
Some studies suggest that adequate B12 intake can help slow the progression of cognitive impairments and may even be beneficial in preventing or delaying the onset of Alzheimer’s disease.

This makes Vitamin B12 an important nutrient for individuals seeking to preserve their cognitive abilities as they age.
Vitamin B12’s influence on cellular health extends to its role in DNA synthesis and cell division.
The vitamin is involved in the creation of new cells, ensuring proper cell turnover in tissues like the skin, gastrointestinal tract, and bone marrow.

When B12 levels are insufficient, it can lead to impaired cell division, resulting in conditions like megaloblastic anemia and problems in tissues that require rapid cell turnover, such as the skin and gut lining.
This underscores the importance of maintaining healthy levels of Vitamin B12 for the regeneration of cells and the repair of damaged tissues.
In the immune system, Vitamin B12 plays an indirect yet important role.

Vitamin B12 helps maintain white blood cell production, ensuring the body has enough cells to fight off infections and maintain a healthy immune response.
Additionally, B12 helps regulate inflammatory responses in the body, which are critical for managing and resolving infections.
Adequate Vitamin B12 intake supports a balanced immune system, reducing the risk of infections, chronic inflammation, and autoimmune conditions.

Another key use of Vitamin B12 is in fertility and reproductive health.
Adequate levels of B12 are important for both men and women when it comes to reproductive function.
In women, B12 supports the ovarian function, playing a role in egg maturation and the regulation of menstrual cycles, while in men, it is crucial for sperm production and motility.

For women who are pregnant or trying to conceive, maintaining optimal Vitamin B12 levels is important for fetal development, as deficiencies in early pregnancy can result in neural tube defects and other complications.
Supplementation during pregnancy can ensure that both mother and baby have sufficient levels of the vitamin.

Safety Profile Of Vitamin B12:
Some individuals may experience allergic reactions to Vitamin B12 supplements or injections.
Symptoms can include skin rashes, itching, swelling, dizziness, or difficulty breathing.
If these symptoms occur, Vitamin B12 is important to stop taking the supplement and seek immediate medical attention.

Though Vitamin B12 toxicity is rare because it is water-soluble and excess amounts are usually excreted in urine, there may be risks associated with consuming extremely high doses of B12 supplements.
In rare cases, some individuals may experience symptoms such as headaches, nausea, fatigue, or diarrhea. However, these symptoms are usually mild and disappear when the dosage is adjusted.
Vitamin B12 can interact with certain medications, which may affect its absorption or effectiveness. For example:

Proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) and H2 blockers, used to treat acid reflux, may reduce stomach acid production, which is necessary for the absorption of Vitamin B12 from food.
Metformin, a medication commonly prescribed for diabetes, can decrease Vitamin B12 absorption over time, leading to potential deficiencies if not monitored.
Antibiotics, particularly those used to treat gastrointestinal infections, can alter gut bacteria, which may affect the synthesis of Vitamin B12.

Chloramphenicol, an antibiotic, may inhibit the action of Vitamin B12 in the body.
Certain chemotherapies may interfere with Vitamin B12 metabolism, increasing the risk of deficiency.